Childhood obesity

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Obesity in children and adolescents is a serious issue with many health and social consequences that often continue into adulthood. Implementing prevention programs and getting a better understanding of treatment for youngsters is important to controlling the obesity epidemic.

There are many factors that contribute to causing child and adolescent obesity - some are modifiable and others are not.

Modifiable causes include

·Physical Activity - Lack of regular exercise. Write my Essay on Childhood obesity for me

·Sedentary behavior - High frequency of television viewing, computer usage, and similar behavior that takes up time that can be used for physical activity.

·Socioeconomic Status - Low family incomes and non-working parents.

·Eating Habits - Over-consumption of high-calorie foods. Some eating patterns that have been associated with this behavior are eating when not hungry, eating while watching TV or doing homework.

·Environment - Some factors are over-exposure to advertising of foods that promote high-calorie foods and lack of recreational facilities.

Non-changeable causes include

Genetics - Greater risk of obesity has been found in children of obese and overweight parents.

Health Effects

Many adverse health effects associated with overweight are observed in children and adolescents. Overweight during childhood and particularly adolescence is related to increased morbidity and mortality in later life.

Asthma

oPrevalence of overweight is reported to be significantly higher in children and adolescents with moderate to severe asthma compared to a peer group.

Diabetes (Type )

oType diabetes in children and adolescents has increased dramatically in a short period. The parallel increase of obesity in children and adolescents is reported to be the most significant factor for the rise in diabetes.

oType diabetes accounted for to 4 percent of all childhood diabetes before 1, but skyrocketed to 16 percent by 14.

oObese children and adolescents are reported to be 1.6 times more likely than non-obese to have high fasting blood insulin levels, a risk factor for type diabetes.

oType diabetes is predominant among African American and Hispanic youngsters, with a particularly high rate among those of Mexican descent.

Hypertension

oPersistently elevated blood pressure levels have been found to occur about times more frequently among obese children and adolescents (ages 5 to 18) than in non-obese.

oObese children and adolescents are reported to be .4 times more likely to have high diastolic blood pressure and 4.5 times more likely to have high systolic blood pressure than their non-obese peers.

Orthopedic Complications

oAmong growing youth, bone and cartilage in the process of development are not strong enough to bear excess weight. As a result, a variety of orthopedic complications occur in children and adolescents with obesity. In young children, excess weight can lead to bowing and overgrowth of leg bones.

oIncreased weight on the growth plate of the hip can cause pain and limit range of motion. Between 0 to 50 percent of children with this condition are overweight.

Psychosocial Effects & Stigma

oOverweight children are often taller than the non-overweight.

oWhite girls, who develop a negative body image, are at a greater risk for the subsequent development of eating disorders.

oAdolescent females who are overweight have reported experiences with stigmatization such as direct and intentional weight-related teasing, jokes and derogatory name calling, as well as less intentional, potentially hurtful comments by peers, family members, employers and strangers.

oOverweight children and adolescents report negative assumptions made about them by others, including being inactive or lazy, being strong and tougher than others, not having feelings, and being unclean.

Sleep Apnea

oSleep apnea, the absence of breathing during sleep, occurs in about 7 percent of children with obesity. Deficits in logical thinking are common in children with obesity and sleep apnea.

Establish policies that promote enjoyable, lifelong physical activity.

·Schools should require daily physical education and comprehensive health education (including lessons on physical activity) in grades K-1.

·Schools and community organizations should provide adequate funding, equipment, and supervision for programs that meet the needs and interests of all students.

. Environment

Provide physical and social environments that encourage and enable young people to engage in safe and enjoyable physical activity.

·Provide access to safe spaces and facilities and implement measures to prevent activity-related injuries and illnesses.

·Provide school time, such as recess, for unstructured physical activity, such as jumping rope.

·Discourage the use or withholding of physical activity as punishment.

·Provide health promotion programs for school faculty and staff.

. Physical Education Curricula and Instruction

Implement sequential physical education curricula and instruction in grades K-1 that

·Emphasize enjoyable participation in lifetime physical activities such as walking and dancing, not just competitive sports.

·Help students develop the knowledge, attitudes, and skills they need to adopt and maintain a physically active lifestyle.

·Follow the National Standards for Physical Education.

·Keep students active for most of class time.

4. Health Education Curricula and Instruction

Implement health education curricula and instruction that

·Feature active learning strategies and follow the National Health Education Standards.

·Help students develop the knowledge, attitudes, and skills they need to adopt and maintain a healthy lifestyle.

5. Extracurricular Activities

Provide extracurricular physical activity programs that offer diverse, developmentally appropriate activities both noncompetitive and competitive for all students.

6. Family Involvement

Encourage parents and guardians to support their childrens participation in physical activity, to be physically active role models, and to include physical activity in family events.

7. Training

Provide training to enable teachers, coaches, recreation and health care staff, and other school and community personnel to promote enjoyable, lifelong physical activity among young people.

8. Health Services

Assess the physical activity patterns of young people, refer them to appropriate physical activity programs, and advocate for physical activity instruction and programs for young people.

. Community Programs

Provide a range of developmentally appropriate community sports and recreation programs that are attractive to all young people.

10. Evaluation

Regularly evaluate physical activity instruction, programs, and facilities.

Easy access to junk food. Gargantuan portion sizes. Little if any exercise.

These are among the reasons why twice as many American children are fat these days compared with 0 years ago, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The incidence of childhood obesity has doubled since the 170s, with 1 percent of children and adolescents obese and an additional 15 percent considered overweight.

Portion sizes are a huge problem. Restaurant meal portions have grown over the past few decades because food has become so cheap and abundant. Its inexpensive and easy for restaurants to provide large meals, which attracts consumers, who equate a bigger portion with a better deal.

Twenty years ago, the average fast food cheeseburger had calories, according to the CDC. Today, that cheeseburger contains nearly 600 calories. A portion of french fries used to weigh .4 ounces and contain 10 calories. Today, the average portion weighs nearly 7 ounces and has 610 calories. The typical spaghetti and meatball meal used to contain 500 calories. Now, restaurant patrons get approximately 1,05 calories from the dish.

Larger portion sizes plus a lack of daily exercise compounds the problem of childhood obesity, pediatric specialists say. Children dont run around outside as much as they used to because of safety concerns, nor do many of them get adequate exercise during the school day.

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Describe 60s pop culture in the 1960s

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Describe popular culture in the 160s

The 160s saw many changes in Britain, it was a prolonged period when people felt that their troubles were behind them, after 0 years of gloom. Because many couples had put off having children during the war, there was a big boom in birthrate between the years of 145 and 147. These baby boomers were in their middle teens at the beginning of the 160s, and it is they who remember the decade with the most affection.

The 160s were a decade of change, and changes in the media industry included the introduction of colour supplements and tabloid newspapers. Teen magazines appeared for the first time in 161, and the most successful ones were Honey and 1, which provided information about the latest trends regarding clothes, style and music. Underground magazines also began appearing in the early 60s, appearing first in 161, and featured its first gag cover in 16. Their pictures were anarchic in style, frequently being printed out of focus or super-imposed and the type was laid unconventionally, appearing diagonally or even upside-down.

Music itself didnt change much in the early 60s, the music still included sentimental lyrics and catchy tunes that the older generation didnt disapprove of. The real change was in technology, the invention of the 7 single in the middle of the decade meant music was now cheaper to buy and lighter and easier to carry around. Teenagers could carry music around with them and that singles could be played it jukeboxes, making it easier for teens to catch up with the latest songs. Popular artists of the early 60s were influenced very heavily by America, and Cliff Richard, Tommy Steele and Billy Fury all tended to copy American trends and produce cover versions of American hits.

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Despite the success of the aforementioned artists, the real success story of the 160s music scene were the Beatles, to many people they were the sixties, and became the heroes of many teenagers. Although a talented band who had been playing together for a number of years, they were not successful till they went under the guidance of Brian Epstein. It was Epstein who made them wear suits with no lapels and cut their hair in a pudding basin style, inventing the Beatle hair style and Beatle jacket. The Beatles wrote their own music, creating a unique blend of rhythm and blues, rock and roll and Tamala Motown, it was this unique style that set them apart from so many of their counterparts. Their realistic lyrics captured the imaginations of teenagers around the world who adopted them as an icon of the victory of youth over old age, of new over old. The success of the Beatles meant that it became respectable to have an accent that didnt come from the Home Counties. They also inspired the Mersey Sound, Fredddie and the Dreamers, The Merseybeats and Jerry and the Pacemakers.

The Rolling Stones started out similiar to the Beatles, but by 164 they had ditched their stage uniforms, their stage acts became wilder, their lyrics and behaviour grew more outrageous,their hair had grown their hair longer and they sparked horror in the older generation like no group ever had before. Their songs carried obvious sexual undertones, and explicitly discussed drug use, which endeared them to girls who found the Beatles a bit too cute.

Radio and television paid little attention to pop music. Six Five Special and Juke Box Jury tended to cater for older tastes. Television was, however, quicker to react to the changing style of music than radio. ITV began to broadcast Ready, Steady, Go and the BBC broadcasted Top of the Pops, both shows became hugely successful. Ready, Steady, Go was described as magic, compulsory viewing. It gave teenagers feeling of freedom, excitement and youth. Cathy McGowan became a heroine for thousands of young girls, who copied her hair and style of dress. These shows were so successful because they were the only chances teenagers had to hear pop music, and if they missed these shows, that was it for the whole week. Teenagers couldnt afford to miss these shows because there was no opportunity to hear pop music on the radio, there were only three BBC radio channels in the early 160s , and no commercial stations. The only way teenagers could listen to hit music was to tune into Radio Luxembourg, or the pirate Radio Caroline, both of which played non stop pop music and catered especially for teens, using different formats and presenters completely diffirent to those of any other station.

Television broadcasting had undergone a dramatic change during the previous decade, which continued into the 160s. At the beginning of the 150s, the BBC was dominated by the ideas of John Reith who wanted broadcasting to be educational, and in the early 50s most programmes educated viewers, and the timetable included cookery and gardening programmes as well as plays. Programmes stopped from 6p.m to 7p.m as part of a toddlers truce to allow parents to put children to bed properly with a story. The introduction of commercial television in 155 was a dramatic change. There were adverts on TV, as well as programmes brought over from the USA such as I love Lucy and westeners such as Wagon Train. The first gameshows also appeared at this time, Take your Pick was amongst the most popular. Commercial television became very popular because it meant people didnt have to think, they were just entertained.

By the early 60s, television was still dominated by the older generation, and regional accents were unheard of on TV. This was all about to change with the birth of soap operas. The first was ITVs Coronation Street which began in 160. At first it was highly critisized for its content and the effect it had on its viewers, because it showed life as it was, rather than as it could be. This began a trend in 160s televison, and was followed by Steptoe and Son and The Likely Lads broadcast in 16 and 164 respectively, which showed the successes and failures of working class people trying to break out of their routines.

There was a similiar problem with films of the time, they didnt portray life realistically, and tended to centre on middle class people living affluent lifestyles. Most of the films in the late 50s and early 60s were epics with big budgets or classical or biblical stories. Films of the time were intended to appeal to a mass audience. Like music, film was also dominated by the USA.

Fashion was also revolutionised in the 160s. Mary Quant was one of the most important designers of the decade, she wanted to create clothes that allowed people to run, tojump, to leap, to retain their precious freedom. This was an incredibly refreshing view on fashion, when the fashion of the 150s required women to force themselves into corsets and girdles to achieve a particular shape, and skirts were calf length and puffed out with layers of petticoats. The fasion became to look as young as possible, and naively unsophisticated, these clothes allowed teenagers to be teenagers, and not miniature clones of their parents. However, the look that began as a statement of the individuality of youth, soon became a uniform and the fashion moved on. The most important aspect of fashion in the 160s was that nothing lasted long and trends moved quickly.

Pop-art was a movement that emerged in the late Fifties as a reaction to the seriousness given to abstract impressionism. It attempted to fuse elements of popular and high culture. The main artists involved in the movement were Roy Lichtenstein, Allen Jones, Tom Wesselman, John McHale and, of course, Andy Warhol and David Hockney. Their style was simplistic, reducing a subject to its lowest common denominator and then converting it with exaggerated colour to express abstract formal relationships. Possibly the best known examples of this were Warhols silk-screen paintings that made use of monotony and repetition such as the images of Marilyn Monroe and Elvis, but many other of the more famous pictures involved everyday objects such as soup tins, cans of baked beans, Coca Cola bottles and the dollar bill. Both types of image appealed to the rebellious nature of Sixties youth, being the antithesis of the older generations concept of art and hardly a teenagers bedroom wall didnt sport pop or op art posters in some form or other.

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Chicago nightclub under court closure when 21 trampled to death

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CBS NEWS Tue, 18 Feb 00 1046

A Chicago nightclub where twenty-one people were killed and 55 others injured in the rush to get to the only open door when a panic swept through a second-storey dance club at the Epitome restaurant. Witnesses say the panic broke out when security guards used pepper spray to break up a fight between two patrons on the dance floor of the Epitome nightclub.

There was only a narrow stairway leading down from the crowded club. Fire officials say they found locked and blocked doors at the club, as well, which were a factor in the deadly stampede. One eyewitness in the club said that when the pepper sprays where used, somebody shouted terrorist and that was what led to the stampede. Again one of the bouncers in the club said that this was not the first time the pepper spray was used.

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What led to the stampede was when somebody shouted terrorist after the pepper spray was sprayed. Remember that the terrorist alert was at the high peak, and people were scared. Any unusual movement will be said to be of terrorism. That was why people got scared immediately they heard terrorist. Again, the club should be held accountable for the deaths of the people for using a lock on the emergency exits. They should make sure that there is no lock in any of the doors.

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Chicago nightclub under court closure when 1 trampled to death

CBS NEWS Tue, 18 Feb 00 1046

A Chicago nightclub where twenty-one people were killed and 55 others injured in the rush to get to the only open door when a panic swept through a second-storey dance club at the Epitome restaurant. Witnesses say the panic broke out when security guards used pepper spray to break up a fight between two patrons on the dance floor of the Epitome nightclub.

There was only a narrow stairway leading down from the crowded club. Fire officials say they found locked and blocked doors at the club, as well, which were a factor in the deadly stampede. One eyewitness in the club said that when the pepper sprays where used, somebody shouted terrorist and that was what led to the stampede. Again one of the bouncers in the club said that this was not the first time the pepper spray was used.

What led to the stampede was when somebody shouted terrorist after the pepper spray was sprayed. Remember that the terrorist alert was at the high peak, and people were scared. Any unusual movement will be said to be of terrorism. That was why people got scared immediately they heard terrorist. Again, the club should be held accountable for the deaths of the people for using a lock on the emergency exits. They should make sure that there is no lock in any of the doors.

Please note that this sample paper on Chicago nightclub under court closure when 21 trampled to death is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Chicago nightclub under court closure when 21 trampled to death, we are here to assist you. Your cheap college papers on Chicago nightclub under court closure when 21 trampled to death will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Foreign Debt

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Foreign debt is a subset of the financial obligations that comprise a country's international investment position. It includes all the non-equity components of the net international investment position, that is, all recorded assets and liabilities other that equity securities and direct investment equity capital, including reinvested earnings. The level of foreign debt in Australia continues to, and always will be of major concern to leading economists and politicians in our country; this level of foreign debt will be used to make political and economic decisions in the future to benefit our economy.

Net Foreign Debt

Net foreign debt, the net sum of debt liabilities and debt assets, consists of sectors, the public sector, such as government, public financial and non financial corporations, and the private sector, such as private financial and non financial corporations.

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At the end of the 000 financial year, the net foreign debt totalled $77804bn, the Public sector, contributed 6% ($1856bn) to the net foreign debt. The private sector, contributed 4% ($55bn) to the net foreign debt. As you can see in the graph below, this figure has been rapidly growing throughout Australia's history, whereas the public sector remains stable in its contribution to net foreign debt.

Figure 1

Image courtesy of Reserve Bank of Australia (August 000)

Note- figures below are in current AUD

Figure 1 represents the private sector as separate sectors, financial and non-financial, responsible for $15.b (75.6%) and $6b (4.4%) respectively. In the last half a decade net foreign debt has been steadily increasing as shown in the table below.

PeriodAssets($m)Liabilities($m)Net Debt($m)

16-17-4,180,84608,68

17-18-11,1846,717,78

18-1-1,1505,80,68

1-000-14,6741,77177,804

000-001-185,6748,7751,47

001-00-1,815,654,76

00-006,000

a negative figure implies a surplus.

Why we have Foreign Debt

Australia's economy will continue to include some level of foreign debt. There are several reasons for this, the size of our capital market will always be a problem, in Australia there is more domestic investment is greater that domestic savings, Australians tend to spend more that they save. Australia has an extremely low savings level, only .7% per household. Another reason is that the government borrows funds to finance a budget deficit and capital expenditure, when borrowing money, the exchange rate alters the level of our debt. The main reason we have foreign debt is because we have a Current Account Deficit (CAD), every month we have a CAD out debt increases by approximately 1.5 billion dollars, our imports are greater than our exports. We are living beyond our means and spending money we don't have. Foreign ownership is also a cause of foreign debt, money made in Australia is sent overseas instead of being invested back into the Australian market.

COSTS AND BENEFITS

As with everything, there are costs and benefits associated with foreign debt. These positive and negative effects of foreign debt are the basis for all decisions made concerning foreign debt, economists look at all possible outcomes and measure the value of risk associated with our debt at any one time, depending on overseas markets and the global economy, Australia's debt has changing effects on our economy. This is also important for political choices, if our foreign debt is costing the economy then the government will not increase and will try to decrease it, they will also try to use this as a political tool to win the votes of voters, pleasing then by promising a positive outlook on the economy by reducing debt or increasing their standard of living.

The costs affect Australia's economy in a negative fashion and increase the size of our debt, these costs include

•A decrease in Australia's credit rating

᠎This will make it harder in the future to borrow money when we need it; because of bad credit then the interest on the loan is likely to be higher, costing Australia more in the long run.

•A decrease in the standard of living

᠎Due to this more income will need to be used on the higher interest payments, income must be diverted from consumption.

•Deteriorated terms of trade

᠎This will decrease export income, because of this the burden of our debt increases

•Depreciation of the Australian dollar

᠎If the dollar depreciates then we will have to pay more back i.e. if $100,000,000 was borrowed when the dollar was at 56c and the dollar depreciates to 40c then we will have to pay an extra 16c per dollar to repay our debt. This will also increase the interest payments.

•A decrease in trading partners Growth rates

᠎If the this occurs this will decrease our export income and increase the burden of the debt

On the other hand the benefits associated with foreign debt are very beneficial to the Australian economy. When the borrowing is used for investment, capital equipment and expansion it is seen as a benefit. These include

•Improved terms of trade

᠎Any improvement in Terms of trade will increase our export sales, lessening the burden of our debt

•Appreciation of the Australian dollar

᠎As the dollar appreciates the net dollar total of the debt decrease as we have to pay less back per dollar i.e. if $100,000,000 was borrowed when the dollar was at 56c and the dollar appreciates to 68c then we have to pay back 1c less per dollar borrowed. Interest payments on the debt will lessen aswell

•Decline in interest rates

᠎If this occurs it will decrease the interest payments on our debt, thus we have more income to repay the debt. This may also increase the standard of living as less money is diverted from consumption.

•Decrease in Foreign debt

᠎The above benefits will all led to a decrease in foreign debt. As more income is brought into Australia we are able to repay our debts faster, taking advantage of low interest rates and the appreciation of the dollar.

COMPARISON TO OTHER COUNTRIES

When analysing Australia's foreign debt you must take into account several things, the size of the economy, the population and the location (whether it is landlocked or not) In comparison to other nations, Australia has a rather healthy manageable foreign debt, Australia; a second world country has a net foreign debt of $6 billion, a figure which is increasing as the years pass. In comparison to the US, a first world super power, the increase in total US debt was staggering. Between 180 and 00 levels of foreign debt trebled, from $10,000bn to $0,000bn. An average increase of $1000bn a year, Australia however has an annual increase of approximately $17bn. This could be attributed to the sizes of the two economies, Australia, a rather small developing economy, and America, a huge well established economy.

To give a broader idea of the condition of Australia's foreign debt you can also look at a small developing country, in this case, Slovakia. Slovakia, a small landlocked country, has only been an independent country for 10 years and is still a developing country. In 15, only two years after the country was established, the net foreign debt had accumulated to $4.6bn and looked to increase in the years to come, compared to Australia who had accumulated $10bn in 15. Yet another country to compare Australia to is our trade partner China. China, a huge land mass with an even huger population has a foreign debt in 1 or approximately $151bn RMB or $bn.

After comparing Australia's foreign debt to other countries of different economic positions we can see that Australia is somewhere in the middle in the world scale of foreign debt. After doing so, I believe that we are in a healthy economic position that our foreign debt is indeed manageable and of no real concern. The majority of our debt belongs to the private sector which is seen as desirable in terms of foreign debt

CONCLUSION

The foreign or external debt is the amount of money that Australian residents, both public and private, owe to the rest of the world. At present we have $6bn in foreign debt with the public sector owning only .7% and the other 6.% belonging to the private sector. We will always have foreign debt because we will always have a CAD, we will always want more and we will never be able to meet the demand domestically. Foreign debt can be costly and beneficial and it is this that the Economists and politicians use to make decisions in the interest of our country.

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American dream

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An American Dream is the widespread of will or ambition to succeed of Americans to live a better life than their parents did. My American Dream is to become a pediatrician. The reason I want to be a pediatrician is because I love working with kids Born and raised in a big family, I grew up taking care of my little cousins and grown to love all little kids. The second reason is that I always wanted to work in the medical field because my mother is studying to be a nurse and I read several of her books and they seemed very interesting. Another reason I would like to become a pediatrician is because of the good pay. I know money can't buy me love or any of the good character traits such as a personality, but as Carl Sandburg wrote in an excerpt from The People, Yes, " Money pays for whatever you want if you have money. Money buys food, clothes, houses, land, guns, jewels, men, women, time to be lady and listen to music"(handout). I want to know I have money in the future so I can give and buy my family things they need and want, I don't want to have to worry about being short on money.

Many Americans have different goals or dreams in this country. Many peoples American Dream pertains to a good paying job that they love. My mother for example, Ana Saceda, says that an American Dream is a dream or long time goal set by a human being waiting to pursue that dream to come true. My mother came to America from the Philippines to fulfill her dream. Her dream was to get a good job in America and have a nice living for her family. She says "It was very hard to search out a good paying job in Rhode Island, but once I obtained one I stuck with my dream and kept the job for many years. I went to college at night, stilled worked everyday so I would have enough money to buy my family the things they need." My mother is now taking classes for nursing. She always wanted to be a nurse and help people, now she has one more year of school and she becomes a nurse. She says that the American Dream is still viable. She always told my sister and I to never give up what we've dreamed. She always said to pursue are dreams and never give up. With that in mind, I never gave up or let anyone tell me that I can and can't do anything in order to fulfill my dreams. Many Americans to this day set dreams and goals for themselves and end up fulfilling them in the future. Some tend to give up and many strive to build and make that dream come true.

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Subcultures

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Subcultures play a huge role in many people's lives and mine is no different. I have many different subcultures, I am a Bostonian, I am a social worker, and I am a brother. There are two subcultures though that has influenced me more than any other. One I was born into, and the other I adopted by choice. I am Jewish and I am a Jabberwockian.

Each of these subcultures has values and beliefs that have influenced who I am today. One of the strongest values that I hold is influenced by Judaism, honor thy father and mother. At a glance this value might seem obvious to some people, but it is much deeper than many think. Honoring one's father and mother is not just "being nice to your parents". It also means respecting them and their beliefs. "Father and mother" also don't necessarily mean your actual parents it also encompasses those you hold dear like they were your own parents. This can be other relatives and mentors in your life. Another value that has been instilled in me by being part of the Jewish subculture is to triumph in the face of adversary. For centuries the Jewish people have been persecuted for their beliefs, yet rather than give up they have fought to make a better life for themselves and their children.

No other subculture has played a larger role in my life than that of being a Jabberwockian. What is a Jabberwockian one might ask? It is a person who is part of the Camp Jabberwocky community. Camp Jabberwocky is a camp for adults and children with special needs. I was fortunate enough to join this subculture at the young age of 15. The most important value that I have learned through my work is that you can and should never judge a book by its cover. Just because somebody is severely disabled and can not walk and talk does not mean that they have nothing to offer or most of all are not intelligent. Another value that Jabberwocky has given me is the value of team work. I have learned that it is far easier to complete a task when you are work with others to achieve a common goal.

Looking at how I acquired the values that I gained from Judaism is fairly easy, from my parents. It is said that there are no greater teachers than ones own parents and in my case that statement is true. At a young age my parents started teaching me these values partially by explaining them to me bust mostly from example. My parents are a perfect example of honoring thy father and mother. They both had very good relationships with their parents before they died. They value the friendship of those who are older than they are, as have I. Using Jewish history they have also taught me the importance of triumph in the face of adversary. They taught me how for thousands of years Jews had been punished for their beliefs and that they have had to work harder to be successful. I learned of the story of Eli Wesel who survived the holocaust and now teaches other people about hatred so that something as tragic as the holocaust will not happen again. They showed me examples from my own life of how this is true. I was born with severe learning disabilities. At many points in my life it was uncertain if I would be able to successfully graduate from high school let alone make it to graduate school. I believe that if I didn't have these learning issues that I would not be where I am today because I had to work so much harder than everybody else that I became determined to show all those nay-sayers wrong and achieve my maximum potential. Learning about how the Jewish people had done similar things was a great motivation for me.

The values and beliefs that I learned from being part of the Jabberwocky community were transmitted in a different manner, trial by fire. I started at camp when I was 15, and had no experience working with anybody let alone people with disabilities. As I met more and more of the campers it became clear that just because they had little or no control over their bodies did not mean that they were dumb. Take Paul for example. Paul has severe cerebral palsy and can not walk or speak clearly, yet he is one of the smartest people that I know. He has a college degree and is a freelance writer. He types on a computer using a stick attached to a hat. He types about words per minute and writes long elaborate articles that take weeks to write. I also learned the importance of team work at camp. The counselors work together as one concise unit, nobody does anything alone. Before I started there I believed that I had to only rely on myself and never trust anybody. I quickly learned though that you can trust other people and by working together you can accomplish anything.

I do not think that it is just chance that these two subcultures have played such a significant role in my life. With out one I don't think the other would really exist. If I was not Jewish, and my parents not taught me to respect other people and to do my best in adverse situations I don't think I would have ever made it to Jabberwocky or stayed once I was there. I don't think I would have been able to accept those individuals at camp had I not been taught to respect and honor other people. I also would never have stayed after the first day had I not been taught to never give up and do your best. I was scared to death the first day of camp and never wanted to go back again, but I told myself that I could do it, and I gave it another couple of days. 1 years later I am still working there. Likewise I don't know if I would have been able to fully grasp the values of the Jewish culture had I not been able to put them into practice at Jabberwocky.

The question of how these cultures play into the dominant culture is a hard one for me to answer. I believe that the dominate culture does not accept these values for the most part, although they would like you to believe otherwise. To make a generalized statement, these values mainly have to do with kindness and standing up for your fellow man. I do not think that the dominate culture in the United States has these same values. I think that the dominate culture wants you to be self sufficient and not rely on your brothers for support. It wants you to stand alone. I think that many people in the dominate culture look at a disabled person and thinks "poor them, they have nothing." I am not saying that all disabled people are hidden geniuses but at least I will take the time to find out rather than make a quick judgment. Where the dominate culture does take a similar stance is in fighting for back in the face of adversary. When Americans are in a tough situation we fight back, we do not role over and give up. This is a value of the dominate culture that I believe in and am proud of.

Hopefully at this point it is evident what my stance is regarding these two subcultures. I still embrace them as much as I did when I was younger, more so now in fact. Each day that goes by I believe that the values and beliefs that I have learned grow stronger. The values of these two subcultures over time have melted together. Rather than believing in "honoring thy father and mother", I now believe in "honor every one". See how the disabled individuals strive to make the most out of their unfortunate situation has made my belief in "triumph in the face of adversary". As I said earlier I don't think I would have ever gotten to experience Jabberwocky if I were not a part of the Jewish subculture.

As I look to my future as a social worker I can not think of anything that will have a greater influence on me. I believe that these values will be the corner stone for my life as a social worker. Because of these values I will be able to respect my clients as human beings and honor them. I know that I will not pass judgment on them before I get to know who they are. I feel that I will be able to help them see that no matter how bad their current situation is that by working hard they can over come it, and be a stronger person afterwards. Working with clients is like being on a team. Having the belief that team work is important will allow me to work more effectively with my clients so that we can make it through the tough times.

I truly feel that I would not be where I am today with out the influence of these two subcultures. There are many more values and beliefs that they poses that have become a part of who I am. I am grateful to my parents for instilling the Jewish faith into me, and I am also very grateful to the Jabberwocky community for taking me in and making me one of their own.

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Doctrine of the precedent

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English law is based on statute but its origins and its continuing evolvement rely heavily on the doctrine of binding precedent, in order to deal with matters not covered by statute and to enable progressive development of the law. Precedent is a very important source of English law and its binding nature while not preventing development of the law, is important in providing certainty in the law.

Judicial precedent also known as judicial decision which means law made by judges when a judge makes law, the case is known as precedent. The essence of the doctrine of binding precedent is that the decisions of courts higher up the hierarchy of courts are binding upon courts lower down in the hierarchy. Future judges must stand by the decision, which is known Stare Decisis. If cases decisions are recorded and judges in later cases follow these decisions a code of conduct can be built up.

Ratio decidendi, in literally means the reasons for the particular decisions, is the statement of law on which the judge based his decision. It is part of the judgement which is capable of forming a binding precedent which means they must followed in later cases. It is important to realize that the ratio decidendi has nothing to do with the facts of the case; it is a statement of law which is carried down to later decisions. In the case of Saloman v Saloman & Co Ltd (187), the ratio decidendi provides that where a person or persons carry on business through a company, the debts of the business are debts of the company and not of those persons.

Obiter Dicta , literally means other things which were said, statements of law which did not form the basis of the decisions. As a result obiter dicta are not binding on future judges. However such statements may assist judges in the future if they are relevant are relevant and based on good sense. As such they are persuasive authority. In the case of Candler v Crane Christmast & Co (151) Lord Denning disagreed with the majority view of judges in the case. He said that an accountant should owe a duty of care to those who ask for and rely upon his advice and who eventually suffer loss because that advice was did not become part of the reason for the decision. It is known as a ¡®dissenting judgement'. However, Lord Denning's comments were of enormous relevance to the evolution of the law of the tort of negligent mis-statement and were later referred to in the case of Hedley Bryne & Co v Heller & Partners (16) when the law was eventually changed to reflect Lord Denning's initial viewpoint.

If a decision is of lower court, a judge need not follow. However, he will consider the law laid down in the case and not dismiss them out rightly. The operation of the doctrine of binding precedent is dependent on the hierarchy system.

House of Lords is the highest court in England and Wales and its decisions are binding on all other courts. Decisions of the House Of Lords are binding on all courts in the hierarchy i.e Court of Appeal, High Court, Crown Court, Country Court and Magistrate Court. Before 166, it is bound by its own previous decisions, until 166, Practice Statement the are not absolutely bound by their own decisions if they consider, in exceptional circumstances that they do not want to follow the ratio decidendi laid down. The House of Lords ruled in London Tramways v. London Country Council (188) A.C 75 that it was bound by its own decisions, the House of Lords is now free to depart from its own earlier decisions ¡® where it appears right to do so' and although this power is not used frequently a useful illustration of the new power in operation was provided in Miliangos v George Frank (Textiles) Ltd (176) overruling the earlier House of Lords decisions in Re United Railways of Havana and Regla Warehouses Ltd (160).

The Civil Division of the Court of Appeal is bound by decisions of the House of Lords, and by its own earlier decisions but there are exceptions, and its decisions are binding on all inferior courts. Exceptions to the principle that it is bound by its own earlier decisions arise where such a decisions conflicts with a later decision of the House of Lords or where the earlier decision was given per incuriam (i.e, a relevant statute or case was overlooked). The Criminal Division of the Court of Appeal is bound by decisions of the House of Lords, and also by its own previous decisions, but it was a wider power than the Civil Division to overrule its own previous decisions and can do so where the law has been ¡®misapplied or misunderstood' in the earlier case and injustice may be caused to an appellant.

There are three exceptions as laid down by Lord Greene MR in Young v Bristol Aeroplane Co Ltd (144), first where there is a conflict between two previous decisions of the Court of Appeal. It is up to the present Court of Appeal to decide which case to be followed. Tiverton Estates Ltd v Wearwell Ltd (174). Second exceptions, a previous decision of the Court of Appeal have been overruled by the House of Lords expressly or impliedly. In this situation the Court of Appeal must follow the decision of the House of Lords. Family Housing Association v Jones (10). The third exception, the previous decision of the Court of Appeal is per incuriam, this is because it was decided in ignorance of a statute. Williams v Fawcett (185). Court of Appeal can depart from a previous decision of its own if it is in conflict with European Community law S. European Communities Act 17.

The High Court of Justice, a single High Court judges is bound by the decisions of higher courts (e.g, the Lords and the Court of Appeal). However, a single High Court judge is not bound by the decision of another single High Court judge. When two or more High Court judges are sitting together (as a Divisional Court) their decisions are binding on any other Divisional Court of that division and upon a single High Court judge.

Other Courts such as Crown Courts, Country Courts, and Magistrates Courts, decisions of these courts are not usually reported. They are bound by the decisions of higher courts. The Crown Courts deals predominantly with criminal matters. The Country Court deals with civil matters of all types, and the Magistrates Court deals with a wide range of criminal matters and come civil matters. Decisions by these courts do not bind any courts. Thus, these courts do not create precedents.

These are advantages of precedent, reaching decisions as a result of the doctrine of precedent makes the system consistent. It becomes easier to predict the result of litigation and it allows the English Legal System to be flexible. Decisions can be adapted and extended to reflect changes in society. The law is clear; as it is only the ratio decidendi that is followed it is easier to see what law is being applied.

Since there is a precedent there is certainty as to what the law is and what would the outcome be in a particular situation. This brings about predictability and consistency. It also saves courts' time because a point of law need not be re-argued if there is an existing precedent. Judges are able to develop the law without the need to wait for the Parliament to make law. Laws are created out of concrete set of facts, which is realistic rather than being abstract which means something is think is going to happen. The doctrine allows flexibility in the sense; the judges may depart from a precedent if it is necessary.

A judge may over-rule if a precedent is bad in law provided they have the authority to do so, and they may distinguish the case, which he is deciding from a precedent, and therefore refuse to apply the precedent.

However, there are a large number of precedents to refer to and judges must be careful in selecting the correct one. There is an element of uncertainty because when a precedent is cited, a judge may over-rule or distinguish the precedent from the existing case and therefore there is no guarantee that the judge will apply the precedent. Moreover, development of the law can be irregular and slow.

It is unconstitutional for a judge to make law, as his function is to enforce and apply the law. Making law amounts to interfering with the functions of the parliament. It goes against the doctrine of separation of powers as expounded by French philosopher Montesquieu who stated that every organ in a legal system must exercise its power separately so that each organ can exercise checks and balances on each other.

Please note that this sample paper on Doctrine of the precedent is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Doctrine of the precedent, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on Doctrine of the precedent will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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