How and Why did the Fourth Crusade go Wrong?

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The Fourth Crusade often called the "Crusade against Christians", did not go according to plan. Due to a number of accidents, coupled with their honouring of secular contracts, before that of their vow to God. An overestimation of the number of crusaders when arranging a transportation contract with Venice left the crusaders at its mercy. This led the crusaders under pressure, to contract further to attack Zara, a Christian city against their vows as crusaders. The arrival of Alexius the son of the former Emperor of Byzantium with an offer they could not refuse saw them on their way to Constantinople. So again the crusade was directed away from its original course in order to yet again attack a Christian city. The purpose of this essay is to discuss these events in order to explain how and why the fourth crusade went wrong.

The crusaders left themselves in a vulnerable contractual position, when their six envoys bargained for the transport of three times the number of crusaders that actually turned up. The deal being that Venice would transport 4500 knights with their horses, 000 squires and 0000 foot-soldiers, with food for nine months, the cost being 84000 silver marks. Furthermore, that Venice would receive half of the territories conquered by providing fifty fully-equipped galleys at her own expense. Whether or not the original figure was extremely overestimated or just a matter of the majority just finding other means of transportation is debatable. Jones and Ereira state

"The envoys estimated that the total number of crusaders would be 500 men. This was an absurd number, seven times larger than the army King Phillip had taken in 110AD. It is clear that great lords and chroniclers had only the vaguest idea of the size of armies."

Other possibilities are that many sailed to other ports looking for a better deal. Perhaps the fact that the landing was to be dangerous Egypt rather than quiet Christian Acre where they could recover from their voyage may have deterred them. As Queller states

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"there was a secret codicil to the treaty of Venice fixing Egypt rather than Christian Acre as the point of debarkation. Information concerning this may have been leaked, causing some of those who took their vows very literally to avoid Venice."

Another point put across by Queller states

"It is our opinion, however, that the shortage of crusaders was in itself the chief reason for vacillation and defection in the summer of 10. The emissaries of the crusaders or their principals had erred tragically in contracting with the Venetians for the transportation of 500 crusaders. Knowledgeable leaders very likely had qualms about their ability to muster so large an army, and feared what occurred in fact the inability of the crusaders to meet their obligations to the Venetians. Their fears, valid in themselves, were also self-fulfilling. Some changed plans to avoid the disarray of a reduced and indebted host. Others held back to see how many first appeared, and, as the result was not encouraging, they headed for Apulian ports or for home."

Regardless of the reason, the estimated 500 ended up being about 11000. This meant every crusader would have to pay three times that expected, with many unable to afford it. Despite the barons adding even their god and silver table-services, they still owed 4000 marks. Their inability to pay the Venetians the full amount left the crusaders poorly positioned when the Venetians proposed an attack on Zara.

Having perceived that the crusaders were 'broke', the Venetians offered to postpone payment of the 4000 marks until gained in conquest, in return for their help in recapturing the former Venetian city of Zara from the king of Hungary. This proposition however, posed some problems for the crusaders. For Zara was a Christian city, and their vows as crusaders stated that they were not to attack fellow Christians. Moreover, the king of Hungary had recently taken up the cross in a recent crusade. The average crusader was not the only one against the attack; the pope also was very much against it. Jones and Ereira state

"But as the attack on Zara was about to begin, the Abbot of Vaux stepped forward with a letter from the pope ('My lords, in the name of the Pope of Rome, I forbid you to attack this city; for the people in it are Christians, and you wear the sign of the cross.')"

Despite this, the crusaders had 'backed themselves into a corner' and were unable to get out of the arrangement. For they not only found themselves honour bound to find any means to pay their debt, they also had been threatened with their supplies being cut off. Robert de Clari states that the Venetian Doge said

"Therefore my men and I want you to pay us the money which you owe us. If you do not pay us, you shall not leave this island before we get our money; and no one shall bring you anything to eat or drink."

Being encamped upon the island of San Niccolo di Lido made these threats seem quite believable, despite the fact that the Doge didn't go through with his threat. For these reasons, the crusaders found themselves unable to get out of an attack on Zara.

After the conquest of Zara had been completed the leader of the crusaders Boniface, returned from Rome followed closely by envoys of Prince Alexius. For Prince Alexius had a proposal in which he would finance their crusade in return for them restoring him to his rightful throne in Constantinople. The offer being

"He will place his whole empire under the authority of Rome, from which it has been long estranged. Secondly, since he is aware you have spent all your money and now have nothing, he will give you 00000 silver marks and provisions for every man in your army, officers and men alike. Moreover he himself will go in your company to Egypt with 10000 men, or, if you prefer it, simply send 10000 men with you; and ….he will maintain, at his own expense, 500 knights to keep guard in the land oversea."

There was much debate among the crusaders about whether or not to take up Alexius' generous offer. On the one hand it appeared a just cause with a large reward, on the other they would be attacking another Christian city and many wished to simple go on to the Holy Land to complete their vows. Runciman states

"The truth seems to be that while Phillip of Swabia, Boniface and the Venetians all had separate reasons for desiring an attack on Constantinople, it was the accident of Alexius' arrival which made the diversion practicable. The Pope had no such intention, and the average Crusader, who was French, genuinely intended to go to the Holy Land but allowed himself to be swayed by circumstances."

However, it seemed the leadership had already made up their mind and they were soon on their way to Constantinople.

Restoring Alexius to the throne in Constantinople occurred with little bloodshed, however when it came to upholding his side of the bargain that was another story. After being crowned, Alexius paid the crusaders 100000 marks, half what he had promised them, but enough to pay off their debts to the Venetians and others. This however was all he was going to pay, so he stalled the crusaders for as long as he could. Eventually however, the crusaders realised his true intentions, and began to take what was owed to them via looting the city, and the nearby towns. This made the Latins even more unpopular to the Greeks than they already were. When it appeared that Alexius wasn't too bothered to do much about the crusaders' looting, unrest eventually resulted in his imprisonment and subsequent murder. His murderer Mourtzouphlus replaced him. This turn of events meant that the crusaders no longer had any just cause to continue their looting, as Alexius owed the debt and now that he was dead their contract with him was void. However, the leaders with the help of the clergy devised another excuse to give validity to continue the looting and to capture Constantinople for themselves. By condoning Alexius' murder, the Byzantines were as bad as his murderer. Furthermore, despite the pope saying the exact opposite, the clergy convinced the average crusader that by attacking Constantinople they would be fulfilling their vow as crusaders. Rather than acting as the good Christians they should have, the crusaders commenced a barbaric bloodbath. As Nicetas states

"No one was without a share in the grief. In the alleys, in the streets, in the temples, complaints, weeping, lamentations, grief, the groaning of men, the shrieks of women, wounds, rape, captivity, the separation of those most closely united. Nobles wandered about ignominiously, those of venerable age in tears, the rich in poverty. Thus, it was in the streets, on the corners, in the temple, in the dens, for no place remained unassailed or defended the suppliants. All places everywhere were filled full of all kinds of crime. Oh, immortal God, how great the afflictions of men, how great the distress!"

And

"You took the Cross upon your shoulders; and on that Cross and on the Holy Gospels you wore that you would pass over Christian lands without violence, turning neither to the right or, to left. You assured us that you only enemy was the Saracen, and that his blood only would be shed…

Far from carrying the Cross, you profane it and trample it underfoot. You claim to be in quest

of the pearl beyond price, but in truth, you fling that most precious of all pearls, which is the

body of our Saviour, into the mud. The Saracens themselves show less impiety."

In this way, the crusaders conquered Constantinople.

It is clear that the fourth crusade went wrong from the start and continued that way until its finale. Had the envoys estimated a more realistic figure of those crusaders to journey perhaps the whole fiasco could have been averted. However, it was not, so against their vows they were forced by threats and a duty to fulfil their obligations to the Venetians to attack the Christian city of Zara. Following this, the accident of Alexius' arrival and his proposition caused them to go further off-course to Constantinople. Alexius' inability to pay the full amount to the crusaders led them to loot the city in order to get the remainder owed to them. When Mourtzouphlus removed Alexius as emperor and replaced him, the crusaders no longer had good cause to continue their looting. Rather than leaving to fulfill their vows as crusaders, instead they attacked Constantinople in substitution of their crusade to the Holy Land. In conclusion the crusaders despite their unfortunate overestimation of numbers when contracting with the Venetians, the crusaders, in particular their leaders disregarded their vows to the cross instead to pursue the upholding of secular contracts.

PRIMARY SOURCES -

Geoffrey De Villehardouin. 'The Conquest of Constantinople' in Joinville & Villehardouin Chronicles of the Crusades. trans. Margaret Shaw. (Harmondsworth, Penguin, 16), pp-160.

Nicetas Choniates. 'Nicetas Choniates The Sack of Constantinople (104)' Medieval Sourcebook,

http//www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/choniates1.html

Pope Innocent III.'Pope Innocent III Reprimand of Papal Legate' Medieval Sourcebook,

http//www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/104innocent.html

Robert of Clari. The Conquest of Constantinople. trans. Edgar Holmes McNeal. nd. Edn. New York Norton, 16.

SECONDARY SOURCES -

Brand, Charles M. 'The Fourth Crusade Some Recent Interpretations.' Medievalia et Humanistica, 1 (184), pp-45

Jones, Terry and Ereira, Alan. Crusades. nd.edn. (LondonPenguin, 16), Ch.1, 'The Fourth

Crusade', pp155-68

Colin Morris. 'Geoffroy De Villehardouin and the Conquest of Constantinople.' History, 5 (168),

pp4-4

Madden, Thomas F. 'Outside and Inside the Fourth Crusade.' International History Review, 17 (15),

pp76-4and

'Vows and Contracts in the Fourth Crusade The Treaty of Zara and the Attack on

Constantinople in 104.' Internationsl History Review, 15 (1), pp 441-68

Norwich, John Julius. Byzantium The decline and Fall. nd.edn. (LondonPenguin, 16), Ch.11, 'The

Fourth Crusade [118-105]', pp165-8

Queller, Donald E. and Madden, Thomas F. The Fourth Crusade The Conquest of Constantinople.

nd.edn. Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press, 000.

Queller, Donald E., Compton, Thomas K. and Campbell, Donald A. 'The Fourth Crusade The

Neglected Majority', Speculum, 4 (174), pp441-65

Runciman, Steven. A History of the Crusades. Vol. The Kingdom of Acre. rd.edn. (Harmondsworth

Penguin, 171), Ch.1, 'The Crusade Against Christians', pp107-1

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The Birth of a font "celtic"

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THE BIRTH OF A FONT

"CELTIC"

There are so many languages in the world,it is impossible to know them all. In one language words are formed,then letters,and then eventually fonts so you can print the language to read. Once a font is derrived from a language it gains its own identity. And like everything with an identity, a font seems to adapt constantly with all changes in life. From the day the font or letter form is conceived it proves itself to be a part of the world constantly. Ogham is one of these letter forms that has done just that. Ogham has adapted to religious changes, history itself, and even the basic cultural evolution of society. In fact, in it's very conception Ogham font showed how it was symbolic of the world around it. Based from seasons and the trees and the flowers it grew into one of the most immense fonts we know of today...Celtic.

Ogham is the first known Irish writing. Ogham, also written as Ogam or Ogum, is pronounced "AHG-m" or "OH-ehm". The Ogham characters consist of a series of lines and noches which are scored across a long stem-line on standing stones. Ogham was carved and read from bottom to top and occasionally right to left. Ogham served as an alphabet for one of the ancient Celtic languages. Since Ogham is written in lines, it is believed that it might have come from a type of sign language. So, if you would point a finger towards the right it is a "b"; if a finger is used towards the left it is an "h", and so on. It's origin is not certain, but it is definite that the druids used this ancient form of communication. It has been discovered that the names of the main twenty letters are also the twenty trees that are sacred to the druids. Trees and nature was a big deal to druids, thus it has been brought to scholastic attention that a thirteen month calendar exists which shares the same tree names as Ogham. This is where the slang term "tree alphabet" comes from.

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Ogham stones are believed to date from the third century AD to the eigth and ninth centuries, and many have been associated with early Christianity. Some even suggest that Ogham was used as early as the first century. Ogham stones can be found frequently in Christian churches and burial sites. In some cases, crude Christian crosses have been carved into the stones beside the Ogham. Early Ogham inscriptions on grave markers and memorials usually contain the name of the deceased's tribe and name. This idea of reference to greatness brings the high probability that these markers and memorials were used as territorial markers of powerful Celtic families and tribes. A few Ogham stones can be found in western Scotland, The Isle of Man, and Cornwall. The stones in Ireland are written purely in Ogham, while those in Britain have the inscription repeated in Latin also carved in the stone in Roman characters. These stones also can be found in Wales, mostly in Oxford, with a small number in North Wales and Anglesey.

Ogham is complicated, but if it is broken down into its four categories it is pretty simple to understand. Basically, the four categories are of five sounds and are a series of twenty `letters' of straight lines and notches carved on the edge of a piece of stone or wood. A twenty-first symbol, an upturned arrow, was used for the letter P in British inscriptions. Notches and grooves appear on one or both sides of a foundation line, which is also known as the druin. Designations for the letters q, v, and z, which are not used in the Irish alphabet, support the now widely accepted interpretation of Ogham as an expression of Irish through the Latin alphabet. Trying to understand this letter form, the scholars of Northern and Western Europe gathered to go over the oldest book of this form, The Book of Balynote,a fifteenth century treatise.The book of Balynote confirms that Ogham was a secret and ritualistic language. Yet later, in eighteenth century A.D., the "Book of Kells", an illustrated gospel book from the city of Kell, was found to show some transcripts of how Ogham was changed by the church of Rome. The time between these books shows how the Celtic church was educated by the Druids to communicate more vastly and accurately. Even though it was against the churchs' ideas, the monestary knew that the most educated people were the Druids. The word `druid' came from the word `dru-vid' which means knowing or wise. All men of substance were included among the druids or nobles. The Druids were the learned and priestly class and were the chief enforcers and guardians of the law. An elite with great powers. Trees, animals, earth, water, and the sun are all featured powerfully in their belief system. Their culture was believed to be entirely oral as it was against their deepest principles to have their secrets known. So,even if they were educated in Ogham, which was very secret in early A.D., and in Latin, they decided not to write down their ideas in. They kept most of their knowledge in their heads, but by the time other cultures deciphered Ogham out they had disposed of most of all that had been written down. Soon after, in the eighteenth century, the Romans had taken over the Celtic church in many lands and had begun to push their now Catholic beliefs onto the people. Quickly the Romans accused the Druids of human sacrifice and forbade their citizens to practice their rites and customs. The Druids were considered too much of a threat and thus were suppressed but continued their religion in secret. So, needless to say, their secrets were lost.

The Celtic church tried to explain how they were the first to have the concept of font and written language, yet it was overthrown later by the eldest people of the region. The Kells, as they were called because of their city of origin, had books and scripts written to explain the history of their people and families and religion. Mostly, these writings that are well known are those of a christian base because the most important families and scholars were part of christian church. In higher houses of society and churches, scholars were selected to write, soon some of the most incredible fonts were conceived. Even though the ideas of the druids were taboo to the church, the basis of the letters themselves could not be forgotten. Elaborate forms and strokes were soon created with amazing image resembling nature, animals, and sacred shields of ones' family or religion. The Celts produced everything exceptionally; hand-decorated books and works of calligraphy. Among the most famous products of Celtic scriptoria are the "Book of Kells", the "Book of Durrow", and the "Lindisforne Gospels". Even though all of these books come from different times in history and different regions of western europe, it cannot be renounced the similarities in their fonts. These various forms of Celtic uncial calligraphy (designating or of the large rounded letters of latin manuscripts between 00 and 00 A.D.) preserved sophisticated writing techniques so that they could be reintroduced to europe at the time of Charlemagne. This eventually lead to a reawakening of writing and literature.

The Kells believed that all its trees, animals, earth, water and even the sun each had a spirit of its own and required special respect. One of the most important things to remember when talking about the Celts and their association with nature is that Celtic strongholds were always dominant in all aspects of life. This was even true when the roman idea of life was forced upon northern and western europe. The Celts believed in the first millenium B.C. that the Supreme figure of the nature kingdom was Cermunnos, Lord of the animals. He was considered the ruler of the natural kingdom of life, death, and rebirth. The animals were held in great esteem by the Celts. It was not so much the animal itself but the energy or spirit which it represented. With this in mind, when you see an animal in a font or a shield its' "energy" is represented for karma and luck. So when you see a boar on a font it represents battle and was believed to make warriors more ferocious; or if you see the bull it symbolizes masculinity, fertility and strength.These rules also come through in basic ideas that all letters based on Ogham have the origins in mames oftrees. Therefore, you frequently see Celtic knots or tree symbols in fonts. derrived from the sounds of trees' names, like Beith (pronounced Beth) is the original name of the Birch tree. This concept brought out by the letter B to be the symbol of the Ogham symbol for B. These eventually took order from the changes in season and order from which the trees grew. This concepts of the letters give stories alxo, like the story of the letter H or the Hazel tree. It has a descriptive story of the members of the Fianra clan defending themselves with a hazel stick and a shield. Both the wood and the edible nuts of this bush or small tree have played an important role in Irish and Welsh traditions. All of these stories being the knowledge of the beautiful adaptions of the letter fonts to look like this tree or nut.

Without history of the Celtic fonts, we see that there is one similarity in all of them. What are the rules and reason? Well, we can see the plots of nature, religion, and fonts, but yet the educated of this time were few, and they were called scribes. When scribes first put pen to page they began the long struggle to control the written form of language and balanced the demands of form and function. Early writing was often carved in stone or wood, which imposed a certain angularity of style. The beginning of adaptions these inscriptive literary forms to other media, and the stylistic and functional demands on written language have grown and changed oand over the centuries have become an art form as well as a vital tool. By the time of the sixth or seventh century, a wide diversity of distinct calligraphy styles had emerged, from the open uncial styles of Northern Europe to the formed styles of Lobmardic documents and the rough informal lettering of Roman beaurocrats. In the Roman period as more and more written records were kept on vellur and papyrus, the scribes found different restrictions and the sharpened characters of the letters began to change, being more rounded and often more decorative. These changes and regulations were from the conflict of old druid ways and the new roman church ways. Yet the Druids and the Celtic church would co-exist, the belief of the roman church were too strict to adapt. So even though the Lords and Ladies of the land had to stick to Roman Catholicism rules, they wanted the beauty adapted by the druids. They adapted the old fonts to new ones so they could keep these designs in their culture.

Between the date of Ogham becoming a true latin letter form and the nineteen A.D., beautiful art fonts were derrived. These art fonts, sometimes called "ding-bats", have been originated from all over western europe. Traditionally these ornaments took form of floral or geometric design and were inserted on the page just like type. Many of these historical based art fonts, drawn from ancient images and decorative arts, including medieval heraldy and roman title, plus a selection of humorous and whimsical silhouettes. These art fonts include characters from Sigil, decorator, sangrael, Zapalec, Spirals, Floressent, Mesoglyphs, Emblems, Hexslar, and Celtic borders. All of them based from historical, religious, and seasonal changes of Western Europe. Just like Ogham was all based from the name of trees which came in order throughout the years, all of the art fonts fashioned at this time in history tell a story. Therefore they are not only elegant and beautiful; they are informative and factual.

Like watching a child grow one day at a time, we look at how one form of lettering has developed into one of the incredible fonts ever conceived. Celtic fonts are everywhere in the world an are known for the most simple strokes to the most intricate knotwork. Yet we cannot forget the ideas and valuable history changing aspects of thes letter form. For if it wasn't for a tiny hand gesture turning into a distinguished line form, and eventually a script form we would not be able to gaze upon the beauty of the font today. So when you view a Celtic font of any style, don't neglect all of the history and beliefs and even nature that it represents to this day. References 1. Fontcraft's Scriptorium Fonts and Graphic Arts

Site......www.fontcraft.com

. The Liberty Mill

Site......http//ogham.lyberty.com

. Geocities Presents

Site......www.geocities.com/Athens/Oracle/48

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Twelve Angry Men A Reflective Essay on Human Natureand Its Influence on Juror #4's and Juror #5's Deliberations

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In Twelve Angry Men, the audience gets to view the two sides of the legal system. We view the institution that would want to be objective, and the human element, the jury, where each individual brings his own personal subjective point of view. This movie exposes the different types of people called to judge ones peers and the complexity of human nature and what different circumstances influence a juror's thought process. This review will focus on Juror #4, the wealthy stock broker, and Juror #5, a man raised in the slums; two men from completely different worlds placed together side-by-side to determine a young boy's fate.

The jury of Twelve Angry Men is entrusted with the power to send a poor boy with an immigrant background to the electric chair for killing his father with a switchblade knife. These men are locked in a small, claustrophobic room on a stifling hot summer day until they come up with a unanimous decision guilty or not guilty. Each juror brings his personal issues and perspectives to the table; the prejudices, biases and weaknesses, anger and indifference, ignorance and fears and the cultural differences that affect their decision making process.

Juror #4 and Juror #5 come from completely different backgrounds, but they both start out by distancing themselves from the world that the boy lives in. Only when the deliberations finally hit each man personally, does it bring out their deep seated issues to the surface. As Juror #5's confidence in himself and his status grow through the proceedings, Juror #4 must be called to question his confidence and strip away the outer veil that hides his true nature. Juror #8 is the facilitator, the man able to bring these issues to the surface. Do my essay on Twelve Angry Men A Reflective Essay on Human Natureand Its Influence on Juror #4's and Juror #5's Deliberations CHEAP !

Juror #4, portrayed by E.G. Marshall, is a confident, well-dressed stockbroker, presumable very wealthy. He is distant and only speaks to the group when specifically necessary to support his position. At times he comes off as smug and conceited, or studious and methodical. This makes it appear as if he doesn't really care about the fate of the boy. It's more like a murder mystery and he's Sherlock Holmes recalling the facts of the case in great detail; a puzzle to be deductively solved rather than as a case that may send the boy defendant to the electric chair. He also claims that he never sweats, but that remains to be seen.

Juror #5 is a contrast in confidence. As brought to the screen by Jack Klugman, Juror #5 is man formerly from the slums. We really don't his line of work, or even if he has a job. He is naïve and insecure. He is naturally reserved and frightened, and perhaps feeling a bit guilty about his own life and where he came from.

Juror #4 is a member of the first group of six to raise his hand for a guilty vote. Juror #4 feels very sure of himself and is very comfortable presenting detailed facts of the case supporting his position. Juror #5 is one of the final five to join in the first vote of guilty, most likely as a result of peer pressure. By voting guilty, it may also be a means to distance himself from his past rather than a true belief in the guilt of the boy.

During the round-the-table discussion to explain each juror's initial vote, Juror #4 confidently states that the boy's entire alibi was 'flimsy.' He didn't believe the boys claim that he was at the movies at the time of the killing, yet one hour later when speaking with the investigating officer, he couldn't remember the names of the films he saw or who played in them. And no one saw him going in or out of the theatre. Juror #4 is distancing himself from the boy and the world he lives in. He is looking the situation in way that used logic to act as a cover for his prejudices.

Because of his methodical thought process and intelligence he is better able to cover up his biases with the fact patters, rather than the emotion, hate and contempt shown by the other hold outs to the not-guilty verdict. In contrast with Juror # and Juror #10 who wear their emotions, biases and intolerance on their sleeves, verbally segregate the world into 'us' and 'them', Juror #4 does it by his logic and detached attitude.

In contrast to Juror #4's positive view of the facts during the round table, Juror #5 elects to pass. Perhaps because the situation elicits too many feelings about his past for him to express, in conjunction with his embarrassment to reveal that the slums are a part of his upbringing. Juror #5 has deep seated feelings for the boy's situation. He's just too shy or embarrassed to reveal those feelings. However, this perspective quickly changes.

As Juror #7 is explaining his position during the initial round-the-table, Juror #4 chimes in by citing studies that show how slum conditions breed criminals. "He's a product of a broken home and a filthy neighborhood. We can't help that. We're here to decide whether he's innocent or guilty. … Children from slum backgrounds are potential menaces to society." He is specifically saying that a slum background is a factor in determining guilt, without really acknowledging his prejudice. Juror #4 is not applying the facts of the incident to a determination of guilt. He's applying the facts of the boy's life situation to his determination of guilt.

Juror #4's comments, along with #7 and #10, riles up Juror #5. He becomes very uneasy and finally defends himself and speaks up. "I've lived in a slum all my life…I've played in backyards that were filled with garbage. Maybe you can still smell it on me?" This confrontation brings out his deep seated feelings and memories of his childhood, and starts his process toward an acceptance of his life and how that may impact the boy he is held to judge today. He will be turned more quickly than Juror #4 because of this connection. It's a moment that the gentlemen of the jury actually take notice of Juror #5.

It is during the time that the jury is discussing the credibility of the testimony of the Old Man and the Old Woman that Juror #5 changes his vote to not guilty. Obviously, it is again Juror #4 who characteristically recounts the details of the testimony of the Old Woman who "looked right in the open window and saw the boy stab his father" and "saw the killing through the windows of a moving elevated train."

Interestingly, it is Juror #, the old man, who has a great eye for detail this time. He is the juror that noticed the old man's torn jacket and the way he walked, dragging his leg, trying to hide it because he was ashamed. Juror # speculates that "this was a quite, frightened, insignificant old man who has never made a difference." "Now this … old man … needs to be listened to." This is a very striking description of some key characteristics of Juror #5 (from the slums, feeling frightened and insignificant) and what has happened to him just previously (acceptance and people listen to him) . Add these facts to Juror #8 reminding everyone of the phrase "I'm gonna kill you," words Juror #5 heard often in his youth, the situation is hitting very close to home.

The combination of needing to be listened to and finally being heard, an acceptance of his past and a newly flamed desire to stand up to prejudice puts him on the road to overcoming his fears, to stand on his own and to change his vote to not guilty. It's then interesting to see that Juror #5 becomes an important participant in the proceedings. He embraces his past and puts his knowledge to good use when he demonstrates how to properly use a switchblade knife "underhanded." He admits "Anyone who's ever used a switchknife wouldn't handle it any other way."

Juror #4 places great satisfaction in that he has a particular ability to recall facts. He is the juror who related in great detail the time frame and sequence of event related to the boy's fight with his father, the purchase of the unusual knife, the friends identifying the "death weapon", the time the boy says he went to the movie, losing the knife, and returning to find his father dead. Juror #4 goes on to recreate his own version of the facts to support his position on the night in question.

Juror #4's presentation of the facts are actually an effort to "objectively" support his biases and prejudices. He is not using the facts as a method to actually determine guilt or innocence. Even when the small and wimpy bank teller, Juror #, recalls the name of the movie and the old man recalls the details of the old man's walk, it does not sway Juror #4 to admit reasonable doubt. What is particularly interesting in this regard is that even when Juror #8 provides the concept of the existence of an identical knife by asking him to admit that "It's possible." Juror #4 responds "But not very probable." This is the perspective that he comes from in the movie. He's not really looking for reasonable doubt as to the boy's guilt. He will not settle for anything less than a probability that the boy isn't guilty. This is not the standard of judging guilt or innocence which should be applied.

Even when the large chart of the old man's apartment is used in combination with Juror #8s demonstration of how long it would take to make it to the door, it does not visibly sway Juror #4. Juror #8 even solicits Juror #4's participation in the experiment and speaks directly to Juror #4 when the experiment is completed as a plea to elicit reasonable doubt in a man who on the surface appears to be concerned with facts and logic.

All this while, Juror #4 has attempted to distance himself on an emotional level from the proceedings. He has not engaged in polite banter with the other jurors. He also has maintained an aloof distance between the boy's situation and the witnesses, and that of his own. Only when the argument turns to the discussion of the boy's 'movie' alibi, do we begin to see a change in how Juror #4 may be looking at the situation. Juror #4 states he could have remembered the names and details of the movies even under pressure, especially after an "upsetting experience such as being slapped in the face by your father." After relentless questioning, Juror #4 can't remember the exact title of the inexpensive second feature and the name of its stars that he saw with his wife three nights earlier. Contrary to his statement that he never sweats, when the pressure is on him personally and he can not fall back on those very important facts to substantiate his argument, we see him wipe a drop of sweat from his brow with a handkerchief. Juror #8 notices, "And you weren't even under an emotional stress, were you?"

The final discussion of the Old Woman's account of the evening and her eyesight, cuts close to home and brings him into the story like it had not before. When the situation finally becomes too personal, it brings out his not guilty vote. The facts he so relied on before have now fallen apart, and when he is personally used as the evidence against a guilty verdict (rubbing his nose and eyeglass marks), he has no choice by logic to continue with the front he has been putting up. "It's logical to assume that no one wears eyeglasses to bed." So it was highly unlikely that the woman could have had time to put on her glasses to see the murder through the el and across the road. And when the only two remaining hold-outs are obviously bigoted, angry men, he doesn't want to be identified with that either. Juror #4 tells Juror #10, "Now sit down and don't open your mouth again." It's now a personal issue for him.

Juror #4 explains the now he agrees with the majority "with a reasonable doubt" after the eyeglasses incident. However, it appears that he had more than just a reasonable doubt. At that point, it was a probability in his mind that the boy did not commit the murder. His reasonable doubt showed up much earlier, he just couldn't get himself to act upon it yet. Reasonable doubt appeared during their movie title discussion. That incident hit him close to home and made him sweat. Maybe for the first time in his life, he doubted himself, but his conceit would not yet let him change his vote. He only changed his vote when in his analytical mind he had proof positive the boy was not guilty (the glasses discussion), it touched him way too close to home to refute the evidence, and he realized the underlying bigotry that was influencing his original position.

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MIS in business

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BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

QUESTIONS

1.) What do you want to do for the rest of your life?

ANSWER

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I do not know exactly what I want to do for the rest of my life. I may become a high school vocational teacher or a professional business person. I have always wanted to become a teacher. I have not made a career decision yet. I have already taken the Praxis I and passed it in the top 10%. Therefore, I have already started preparing for a teaching career. I plan to take the Praxis II this summer. In spite of this, I am still going to wait and see what business opportunities I may be offered out of college. However, if the teaching matter does not work out; I want to be a successful, wealthy, and prosperous business person. I plan to work for a well known and thriving business. Human Resources has always been interesting to me. I would enjoy hiring and firing employees. I could see myself being a Human Resource Director for a large business firm. I also would like to be a recruiter for a company or a college. I could perform either one of these exciting professions for the rest of my life. I do not care to be supervised constantly. I work better when I am on my own. I think that I should be trusted enough to get my work completed. It doesn't matter to me if I stay in my hometown or move to another state. I would like to leave the little country town of Petal and move to a big city. I believe that I will go where the money takes me. I do know that I want to be happy for the rest of my life. I want to be satisfied with my career and have a fulfilling personal life. I guess when I am asked the question what do you want to do for the rest of your life; I should respond with "making a lot of money".

.) If you go back to your hometown to live and work; what products or services are you going

to do or offer? Use the Internet to help you decide. Why would anybody buy from you

instead of competitors? Combine the videos watched in class and Ch. 10 and Ch. 11 to your

answer.

ANSWER

I have had thoughts before of opening my own business. Nevertheless, I have kept my ideas as just thoughts. I could open an Internet business and offer a variety of products. I could do something similar to PC Flowers by having enough courage to establish my own interactive business. In the video the owner of PC Flowers said that everyone told him that this flower business conducted on the Internet would not succeed. PC Flowers is still flourishing today. It is now a brilliant company. I could start myself a brick and mortar business while having the Internet correspond with helping me. I could start a coffee shop on the Internet. My internet business is going to be most similar to the fourth video we watched, "Thinking Machines". My business is going to have robotics and artificial intelligence tied into it. I would have to get information on opening an Internet business from existing websites to help me get started. Artificial intelligence can help my business in numerous of ways.

In the small town of Petal, MS there is not a single coffee shop. I believe that an interactive coffee shop will do well in Petal. Therefore, I am going to open and establish a soon to be famous coffee shop. The name will be MMM… COFFEE & GRITS! I will offer a variety of services and products. The store will be open 4 hours a day, Monday thru Sunday. The internet will also have 4 hour access to order food and coffee. The business will be located at 1140 Main Street. There are several reasons why consumers will choose MMM…COFFEE & GRITS over competitors. First, we will offer convenience at both at locations ( brick and mortar and the Internet) and getting fast service will be a demand. We will be connected to the Internet. On our homepage we will have a section for ordering coffee and breakfast. We will get customers to enter their regular coffee order. We will give them a password to go with their name on our website. Then all the consumer has to do is log on to their computer, type their password in and their usually coffee order will appear. The consumer will have a choice on what to do next. They can press okay, and our robotics will automatically make the consumers order. There will be another icon on the home page that states "Add To My Order". This allows the consumer to add food or more drinks to their order. This is extremely convenient because most people drink coffee on their way to work. Consequently, the consumers will not have to come in to order or wait. Instead we have our convenient Internet connection so that the order will be ready when the consumer arrives at the store. We will also accept phone orders. The store will have a drive thru; hence customers will not have to get out of their vehicles. Another reason why consumers will choose MMM…COFFEE & GRITS is because Petal residents will no longer have to drive to Hattiesburg or out of town to get coffee or home made breakfast food.

After my internet connected business gets started I will have to design a database. The database will get started on my opening day. I will have a drawing that gives away a free breakfast combo for one month. In order for the consumer to register they will have to sign in and give their name, address, and email. This will get my database in progress. I will have a customer database similar to P C Flowers and Frito Lay. Both of these companies keep up with what their customers have bought, how frequently they purchase, who are their best customers are. My database will be designed similar to these so that I can monitor what customers want. I can also keep up with what and when my customers place their purchase. This will allow my robotics to know when to go ahead and start cooking up the coffee and food. The Schneider video used an efficient Management Information System. They had 17 regional operating systems. They have computers located in their trucks to track how fast they are going, safety, and fuel efficiency. MMM…COFFEE & GRTIS will offer a delivery service. I will have tracking devices installed in my delivery vehicles to monitor my employees. I expect them to go directly to the house where the order is suppose to be delivered to. Having computers installed in my vehicles will ensure customers fast service. This will also decrease costs because employees will not be able to ride around and waste gas. I would also like to have a MIS like Schneider. Their system is user friendly and can receive data very fast. I need a user friendly MIS because I am computer illiterate (just kidding!). Since a MIS provides reports based on routine flows of data and assist in general control of the organization, my business will rely on a MIS. I will count on the MIS to provide information on my business's performance of monitoring and controlling the business decisions.

Our prices will also be cheaper because part of the making coffee and food process will be used with artificial intelligence and intelligent agents. This is very similar to the videos Papnet and Thinking Machines. Papnet used robotics arms to pull Pap smear slides and look at them under the microscope. They use neural networks to detect abnormalities pelvic cells. This artificial intelligence is like a human brain. Just like in the Papnet video when employees get tired they overlook or miss seeing abnormal cells. This is related to my business; because when my employees get tired they will make accidents happen. The wrong order could be given to the customer, the employee could forget to type the order in the computer to be processed, or the employee could be rude to the customers if too tired. If I used the neural network like Papnet, I know my business will succeed. The Thinking Machine video relates to my business the most. In this video it was mostly about a guy beating an artificial intelligence machines in checkers called Deep Blue. This video concentrated mostly on how computers can think on their own. Each year it is becoming more difficult for the guy to beat the computer. The computer attempts to mimic human physical and intelligent tasks. There are built in reasoning codes and rules for decisions on these artificial intelligence machines. My computers in the coffee shop will automatically start making coffee at 400 a.m. No one will need to be at the shop until around 500 a.m. The artificial machines will have arms on them and will pour the coffee in extra pots where the coffee will stay warm. Also, I will be using hybrid AI systems to run my shop. This is an "integration of multiple AI technologies into a single application to take advantage of the best features of these technologies". I think this artificial intelligence is the best. It takes advantage of all the finest features of genetic algorithms, fuzzy logic, neural networks, and expert systems. My systems will also cook the food that is ordered. I will only need employees for delivery, customer service, and to keep things in order. My artificial intelligent machines which will be robotics will do the rest. I think that my intelligent technologies should use neural networks the most because they follow the patterns of the human brain. Some of my other computers may use case-based-reasoning which is artificial intelligence technology that "represents knowledge as a database of cases and solutions". This way if there is a problem and the artificial brain can't figure out a solution there will be a backup with similar or just alike cases. Therefore, there should never be a mistake in a customer's order.

The video Race Against Time doesn't really apply to me right now. That video mostly was concerned with the millennium bug. Since it is 00, I don't have to worry about the glitch. However, I do need to keep up with viruses and bugs that may occur in my computer system. If I got a virus in my computer there would be complete chaos in the store. Moreover, I still think that errors or glitches could occur with the older computers that weren't manufactured after 000. I want my store to be the best and be the most profitable! Therefore, all of my computers and artificial intelligent machines will be up to date.

The sixth video we watched in class had three sections to it. Dupont had an executive support system that allowed 4 hour access to data from any of their locations. In the video it pointed out that senior executives have a great need to review information from external and internal sources. I will need an executive support system somewhat to this one. Dupont was mostly concerned with locations around the world. I will not need to have an ESS that supports global working yet. Maybe one day I will be able to expand my business worldwide. Phillips Petroleum gave good details about profitability within the ESS. The video stated that profitability depends on active reporting and changes immediately. I think that being in the restaurant business, this is an important issue. I need to know if anyone else in the community is thinking about starting a small business like this one. I also need to keep up with the prices of competitors. According to Phillips Petroleum this is what their ESS system assists with. Frito Lay looks at data daily. This allows them to keep up with sales and what promotions to offer next. I would need to pay attention to this because I need to know what my sales are daily to see if I am making a profitable return. I will also need to know what to put on promotion or sales each month. I am going to set my goals similar to the Water Association in Australia. The man on the video stated that I.T. can give your business a competitive advantage. Follow these goals, it important to set targets, monitor targets, look closely at I.T. budgets for real business decisions, informing line managers to account for money spent on the I.T. I will follow these in hope to allow my business to prosper. Also this video used Geographic Information Systems. This shows basically the trading area for the business, where the most valuable customers live, how far they drive, and how frequently they may visit. Using a GIS system would benefit my business. I will know how large my trading area is, and what target market to approach using this development.

MMM…COFFEE & GRITS will be a new technology to our generation. It will not be just another coffee shop; it is going to be a new creation. I have already stated above that I will use artificial intelligence to run my business. My business will benefit from this by storing information in active form, creating mechanisms that are not subject to human feelings (such as being tired, fatigue, or worried), eliminates routine and unsatisfying jobs (such as being at the store at 400 a.m. to make the food and coffee), enhancing organization's knowledge base, and generating solutions to specific problems. Most of my intelligent machines will be robotics. They will make all the food and the coffee. I will offer anything from coffee, cappuccino, and homemade pecan pancakes, to several other items. I hope that my Executive Support Systems will help me make better business decisions, the Internet will attract several customers through its convenience, and that the artificial intelligence systems that I have installed will give MMM…COFFEE & GRITS a competitive advantage!

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The Family

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What a celebration! It was a multi-denominational event. There was African, reggae, choral, folk, Christian, song and praise. Paba, our vibrant, and dynamic modern Catholic priest lead the service. There were speeches. Prime Minister Ralph Gonzalves of St. Vincent cried during his eulogy. Thousands of people gathered in the stands for the final goodbye. As many along the road sides throughout the route of the motorcade. They waved flags, t-shirts, placards, their hands. Children, youth, the elderly, the farmers, supporters, the common people. The motorcade went on for miles, headlights on, and the horns blaring. There was the roar of the crowd at the Market Steps where Brother George had stood educating the masses. The thunder and dark clouds dissipated, no rain, and the sun shorn upon Brother Ralph, the last of the revolutionaries when he spoke. What a day! What incredible joy!

When we got to the cemetery the body had already been lowered and the tomb being sealed. Traffic flowed from the Marchard Park to Vigie, miles of road. While we were still in traffic at Marchard the cortege had already reached Vigie. The wreaths flowed continuously. The African drum accompanied the voices of people as they sang, By the rivers of Babylon and good bye to George, there would never be another like you. La Rose/folk Style. One said he was a prophet. That it would be another one hundred years before another person appeared of such caliber. No one wanted to leave the cemetery. It was dark when we departed.

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I had paid my last respects when I viewed the body at Parliament. He was calm and dignified. Just as described by Prime Minister Gonzalves of St. Vincent and in our Buddhist scriptures of one who had obtained absolute happiness. His life and happiness reflected in the common people yesterday. They were fulfilled. They were satisfied. Oh! how wondorous! Oh! how merciful! What a beautiful future awaits my country! I am filled to overflowing with joy!

Empress

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Sexual harrestment in corporations

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The situation in the case can be identified as abuse of managerial power since it is not much logical that a 0 year-old girl dates with a fifty year-old man, who is also married. There are several aspects to be considered in analyzing the case. First of all, one should be assessed with his/her performance in the job. Joe Ryan is a very successful person as explained in the text. However, this does not give him an opportunity to misuse his success. If he were not so successful in his job, I think that they would fire him without hesitation. However, the issue is about a manager who has open a new era for the company.

According to me, it is very risky to fire a CEO who is so successful in business life. He knows the company, its strategies, the market, partners, employees, ethics and cultures within the company very well. It should be questioned that whether it will be possible to find a new CEO that could replace him. Since the company is in a critical point in business (new stores coming very soon), it would not be logical to find a new manager. Company may loose during the adaptation period of the new comer.

Another point is the truth of the news on the paper. Since Joe Ryan is a friendly person, his behaviors may be misinterpreted by people looking from outside. There have been similar instances in the past that has been regarded as the same but he has always refused those accusations saying that they were just friends. Before making a judgment on the issue, the source of the news should be investigated perfectly.

Moreover, it is probable that the company is harmed since it is slogan is just the opposite of what the CEO has done. This issue should also be considered upon decision making, whether the result could affect future business of the company or not.

If I were to consider on the issue, I would first determine whether the accusations are correct or not. Second, I would fully consider if the situation could harm future business of the company. If yes, I would fire him without any thoughts. If no, I would warn him to be more careful in his attitudes. If he has to be fired, it should be fulfilled after a person is trained who is to replace him.

Please note that this sample paper on sexual harrestment in corporations is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on sexual harrestment in corporations, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on sexual harrestment in corporations will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Bilingual Society

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There is currently a movement taking place to split the United States into a bilingual society. Many Hispanic political leaders are pressing for bilingual education which could possibly mean that English and Spanish will become the official U.S. languages (Hayakawa 7). The bilingual education program seeks to permit non-English speaking children to use their native language instead of English in school systems (Rodriguez 8). This program will put foreign languages in competition with our native language. Good communication cannot exist if our nation has to communicate through interpreters. If bilingual education is accepted, its participants will suffer the horrifying social disadvantage of being isolated and the economic disadvantage of not being able to find a stable job. The nation will suffer economically as well as from poor communication.

If this bilingual education system is enforced, there will be no encouragement of Spanish speaking immigrants to learn the dominant language of our nation. The nation would become divided into separate groups Spanish speakers and English speakers. How could such a divided nation be governed? Communication is essential for unity and peace. Former California Senator Hayakawa comically clarifies this idea stating that America unified, a result of the melting pot, but bilingual education encourages that the national ideas should be a salad bowl, rather than a melting pot, in which different elements do not melt but mingle (Hayakawa 71).

Countries that do not require monolingual education tend to have severe problems with communication. For example, in India, three languages are required for internal communication the language of birth, the regional language, and the official national language (Roberts 106). Poor communication has often interfered with the governing of India. The former Soviet Union is another good example of poor governing as a result of lack of communication. The inability of the Serbs, Poles, and other divided groups to communicate with one another steadily increased cultural differences. These differences led to cultural uprisings against the national government which was unable to accommodate all of the cultures within its body. Throughout history, cultural conflicts have been one of the major causes of revolution and governmental breakdown. The best way to minimize cultural conflicts is to communicate with only one national language.

In her essay Sociocultural Change and Communication Problems, Jane Roberts explains that the internal communication is possible for any nation when one language is known by the vast majority of the population. Roberts demonstrates the complexity of communication by explaining the three ways in which countries manage communication

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The first way is that the country may have a national

language which is known by the majority of the people.

Second, where several languages are spoken, one of

these is dominant and is learned by many of the

minority language speakers. Third, if several

languages are spoken and for political or other reasons

one of these fails to achieve superordinate status,

another language is adopted and learned by most people.

(Roberts 106)

These methods of internal communication demonstrate the complexity of multilingual countries.

There are also economic reasons for not enforcing bilingual education in the United States. In 181, Ronald Reagan cut funding for bilingual education as part of an effort to relieve federal spending. Speaking out against bilingual education, Reagan proclaimed that it was absurd to have a bilingual education program that was adamantly dedicated to preventing immigrants from ever learning English proficiently and preparing for the job market (Romaine 5). In 18, U.S. English, Senator Hayakawas organization which was lobbying for a constitutional amendment to make the official language of the United States English, presented Congress with testimony against bilingual education. U.S. English recommended developing alternative methods of education for non-English speakers and suggested that the funds saved in doing so be allocated for improving and greatly expanding foreign language programs for American students at all levels (Hakuta 10). U.S. English chose a good time to present their case to Congress because bilingual education was then costing the government $18 million (Hakuta 08).

It is obvious that Americans who never learn to speak and write the English language will be very limited in the number of jobs they can hold. Non-English speakers will suffer economically and increase the economic depression of non-English speaking communities as a whole because of job limitations. Therefore, bilingual education will harm the economic situation of the people as well as the government.

Probably the worst aspect of bilingual education is the social isolationism. In his essay Caught Between Two Languages, Richard Rodriguez describes how uncomfortable he was as a child because he could not speak the public language. He describes how uneasy he was just watching his parents trying to communicate with people such as cashiers and service station attendants. Rodriguez was uncomfortable around all English speakers which included nearly everyone outside his own family (8-10). An Italian immigrant named Irving Child described similar experiences of isolationism. As Child was growing up, he was so frustrated by not being able to communicate with people outside his own family that he rebelled against his parents and other authority figures, blaming them for his isolated condition. After finally learning English and being accepted into society, Childs attitude towards his parents changed, and he became more submissive to authority (Hakuta 17-17). Rodriguezs and Childs experiences summarize the ordeals of many non-English speakers who are confined to their own families and are unable to integrate into the mainstream of the American society.

Further evidence of bilingual education promoting social isolationism is the current social situation in Montreal. Montreal is divided into two major ethnic-linguistic groups who have very few means of communicating with one another. Lambert describes an incident that occurred while he was studying bilingualism in Montreal. The event happened while he was on a bus sitting behind two English speaking French women and in front of two French speaking women. All of the French speakers on the bus were completely separated from the English speakers. Lambert heard one of the English speaking women say that she was paranoid when she heard French people laughing, afraid that they may be laughing at her (14).

Learning the native language of a country is especially important with respect to the attitudes of educators. Florence Goodenough, a well known researcher of bilingual education, collected data on foreign languages in the homes of immigrants from different nationalities. She showed a negative relationship between the amount of foreign language used in the home and the median IQ of the group. The less foreign language the subjects used and the more English used, the higher the IQ (Hakuta 7). Goodenough believes that her findings conclude that those nationality groups whose average intellectual ability is inferior do not readily learn the new language (Hakuta 7).

Similar studies showed that in urban areas bilinguals compared well with monolinguals in IQ tests. However, rural bilinguals scored poorly compared to rural monolinguals. The lower scores of the rural population are most likely a reflection of lack of opportunity and context to use and hear English (Romaine 10). Clearly there are many outside factors that influence test scores. However, so much judgement is placed on standardized IQ tests that in order for students to be easily accepted as intellectual equals, they must be exposed to the public language as much as possible.

Many feel that learning a second language can be detrimental to the human brain. Some research indicates that bilingual children take longer to name an object than monolinguals because they must take time to differentiate their first language from their second (Lambert 115). As mentioned earlier, bilinguals tend to score lower on IQ tests than monolinguals for various reasons. There are even some studies that conclude that monolingual students score better on performance and nonverbal tests than bilingual children (Lambert 11). However, it is only fair to point out that there is almost an equal number of studies suggesting that bilingualism has a positive effect on intelligence.

Some studies indicate that learning a second language exercises the brain and therefore increases the learners intelligence. Wallace Lamberts studies suggest that learning a second language increases ones cognitive skills (100). In many studies, bilinguals have achieved higher scores on performance and nonverbal tests than monolinguals. However, bilinguals naturally did not score as well on verbal tests. W.A. Stark, a researcher of bilingualism, concluded from one of his studies that early bilingualism may be an asset to the mental development of children (Lambert 114-116).

Of course there are studies which conclude that bilingualism has no effect on intelligence. One study conducted with the Italian-American students resulted in there being no conclusive differences between the scores of monolinguals and bilinguals on verbal, nonverbal, and performance tests. (Lambert 117). Another experiment conducted by Arsenian showed no variation between the intelligence levels of bilinguals and monolinguals on controlled tests (Lambert 118).

The existing research and test results are so contradictory that there seems to be no concrete evidence supporting positive or negative effects of bilingualism on the brain. Although different activists use this type of information to argue for or against bilingual education, such information is not really relevant to the question of bilingual education.

Another good reason for not allowing immigrants to be educated in their native language is that generally, learning a second language comes easier to a child than to an adult. Children learn a second language by rule formation. At an early age it is easier to learn these rules from the speech to which the children are exposed. However, adults tend to prefer learning these mechanical language differences at home in their restricted environments, using whole formulas rather than small general rules (Shapira 55). The problem for the adult learner is that the discourse of Adult-Adult conversation relies much less on immediate environment than Adult-Child or Child-Child interactions (Harley 1). Therefore, if someone has not had any encouragement to learn English during his childhood, and he waits until adulthood, the second language acquisition process will most likely be much more difficult.

Although many people shun the possibility of America ever converting to a bilingual society, the process has already begun in many areas. Certain areas of Miami, for example, have already broken down and changed their present system to accommodate monolingual Spanish speakers. In many fast-food restaurants both Spanish and English menus are provided. The local and state government have spent valuable tax dollars to create new highway and road signs in Spanish which have been posted next to the existing English ones. Not only has transportation given in to accommodating two languages, but county parks, newspapers, libraries, and other public facilities have given in as well. Parts of New York, Texas, and California have also experienced similar transitions. Hayakawa illuminated that...

Countless millions of immigrants successfully made the

transition from their native tongues to English and

became assimilated into the American mainstream. It

is condescending and insulting to single out todays

immigrants and suggest they cannot do the same (7-7).

American immigrants need English because they come from so many different speech communities, and the English language is their only passport to social and economic advancement. Monolingual education is needed to keep immigrants from being isolated and to keep them in good economic condition. In order to avoid conflicting cultural differences and possible uprisings, the United States needs to maintain its current monolingual education policy. Making English the official language of the United States may be the single most important aspect in maintaining American unity.

Works Cited

Hakuta, Kenji. Mirror of Language. New York Basic Books, 185.

Harley, Burgit. Age in Second Language Acquisition. San Diego, Calif. College Hill, 186.

Hayakawa, S.I. Why English Should Be Our Official Language. Language Awareness. New York St. Martins, 10 ed.

Lambert, Wallace E. Language, Psychology, and Culture. Stanford, Calif. Stanford, 17.

Roberts, Jane. Socioculture Change and Communication Problems. Study of the Role of Second Languages. Washington, D.C. Center for Applied Linguistics of Modern Language Association of America, 16 ed.

Rodriguez, Richard. Caught Between Two Languages. Language Awareness. New York St. Martins, 10 ed.

Romaine, Suzzanne. Bilingualism. New York B. Blackwell, 18.

Shapira, Loraine. Age and Bilingualism. Second Language Acquisition. Rowley, Mass. Newberry House, 178 ed.

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