The technological situation in China's publishing industry

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The technological situation

Printing is one of four inventions of ancient China. However, China's printing technology was backward until recently. Since 178 when China started economic reform and opening to the world, China's printing and printing equipment industries have developed impressively. Chinese companies have started to use ¡°color offset printing, electronic color separation, laser phototypesetting, in-line automatic binding¡±, and gradually marched into the era of computerization. By 16 over 0 per cent of typesetting in China was computerized (Drury, 18).

Offset printing has become a dominant process in publication and package printing houses. The total national production of publication printing in 1 is 61.57 million reams (500sheet/ ream), including 50. million reams of books by offset printing, amounting to 8% of the total. Newspapers are completely printed by offset printing (Wu, 001).

On the other hand, China's publishing technology is yet to bridge the large gap to match developed countries (Wu, 001). For instance, the image reproduction process composed of pre-press, press and post-press, still remain in separately operating state; automation and efficiency have to be upgraded; digitalization and the networks integrated system also needs to be developed.Write my Essay on The technological situation in China's publishing industry for me

The quality of most locally made paper is also an important problem. The problem stems from a lack of investment in modern papermaking machinery and controls. Although some plants are being modernized, it will be quite some time before the consistency of Chinese paper is sufficiently good to allow for trouble-free running of large presses and to meet the increasing demand for color printing (Drury, 18).

In 001, the market share for local printing equipment was only 8%. In 001, the printing equipment exported from China only took up 0.1% of the world total volume in the international market. The value of imported printing equipment was up to USD 1,70 million, an increase of 5% over the year of 000. Most high-tech equipments in Chinese market in the field are imported, mainly from West Europe, USA and Japan.

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Germany and Cambodia

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GERMANY

ECONOMY

Germany is the worlds third largest technologically powerful economy in the world. its economic development is based on an alliance of industrial business people with the Prussian aristocracy. Such a strong economy helped to carry them into two world wars and survive largely intact. Between 151-161 GNP (gross national product) was up 8%, while at the same time exports trebled. This was an outstanding event in the history of both west Germany and Europe. While growth picked up by % in 000, unemployment is still a major long term problem. Corporate restructuring and growing capital markets are transforming the German economy to meet the challenges of European economic integration and globalization in general.

EDUCATION Help with essay on Germany and CambodiaEducation in Germany is free and mandatory from the ages of six to fourteen. Kindergarten is not a part of the education system there. Before the unification of east and west Germany, east Germany almost had a universal system of child care facilities, but under the treaty of unification the east German public education system was required to conform to the model in use in west Germany.

CAMBODIA

ECONOMY

Cambodia is one of the world's poorest nations with a GDP (gross domestic product) of only .1 billion. The economy is based heavily on agriculture with most of the labor force engaged in rice cultivation and the production of rubber. Consequently they are vulnerable to annual fluctuations caused by the weather and world market prices. Tourism is a fast growing industry in Cambodia, in 000 it was up by 4%.

A fear of renewed political instability and corruption within the government are discouraging any foreign investment and are delaying any form of foreign aid.

EDUCATION

Most of Cambodias population lack education and productive skills with 5% of the adult population illiterate. Public education is free and compulsory for the first six years of schooling. Roughly 4% enroll to go on to secondary education and only 1% enrolls to go to university.

PEOPLE

The Khmer Rouge, which makes up most of the population-killed intellectuals, merchants, bureaucrats, members of religious groups and anyone suspected of disagreeing with their party. While having so many Khmer Rouge make up the population creates a strong sense of national identity, from the 170's the number of Europeans declined enormously and many Chinese and Vietnamese immigrated overseas

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Ads

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Advertising is a plague that has swept every medium known to man. Greek tavern owners pioneered the art of advertising using simple relieves to quench any passerby's visual thirst. Since then, advertisements have taken many forms and continue to harass with 000 ads a day, magazine readers, radio listeners, television viewers, and Internet surfers are continuously bombarded with useless advertisements. People are now paying to purchase advertisements, some have become walking billboards promoting popular designers and styles. Television has become polluted with endless commercials, during a half hour segment, nine minutes of your favorite show has been replaced with commercials.

Advertisers use clever ways to trick an audience into purchasing a product. A magazine ad for diapers uses some avant-garde advertising techniques. The use of a popular icon captures the eye of the targeted audience. An icon is a product's mascot, it is a cartoon that humanizes the products and is easily relatable to, the Luvs icon is Barney the Dinosaur, he helps the consumers relate the product with a loveable cartoon that is associated with child care. Barney is synonymous with effeminacy and gentility; who better to promote a product that promises a gentle cloth-like feel.

The advertisers weren't convinced that one technique would suffice their hunger for consumers. The advertisers used positioning as an under-handed way to convince the audience to purchase the product. Positioning is the placement of an object to stimulate thoughts and associate the product with its location. In this advertisement, the product is placed next to a dainty undergarment; this alludes to the diapers cloth-like fabric. The diaper is also set against a blue sky with fluffy clouds; the clouds also advert to the diapers softness and comfortable fabric.

The Luvs advertising campaign is generally targeting young housewives who want their children to be pleased with their diapers. Their children might be reluctant to wear ordinary diapers but ones endorsed by their favorite cartoon will win over their affection. Every mother wants to please her child but she also needs to look after his best interest, in this case it is a cloth-like diaper that helps stop leeks. This advertising campaign is successful and will convince the targeted audience.

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Alexander Hamilton

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Alexander Hamilton Stephens

His Defense for Secession and His vice Presidency during the Civil War

Alexander Hamilton Stephens was born on February 1, 181 near Crawfordville, Georgia. He helped organize the Whig Party in Georgia and in 184 was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in which he served until 185.

In early 1861 just before the outbreak of the Civil War, serious economic and ideological differences among the states' rights and slavery divided the people of the nation, and the country geographically. Nineteen states, including the industrialized northern states, prohibited slavery. While 15 southern states whose economies depended on agriculture, permitted the ownership of slaves. 11 of the southern states withdrew from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America.

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Stephens opposed the immediate secession movement in Georgia in 1860-1861, he cautioned that revolutions once begun were hard to control and that slavery was safer inside the Union, but after the state had voted to secede he supported it's action, like so many other southerners, he had no thought other than that of following his state once secession had been determined. Part of this decision-making could have been the development of his "southernism concept", which was long before the civil war. It was a southern idea in which they referred not to state and nation but to section, as the focal point of admiration of their allegiances. Stephens quote "The south is my home my fatherland. There sleep the ashes of my sire and grandsires, there are my hopes and prospects; with her my fortunes are cast; her fate is my fate and her destiny my destiny"(unquote).

The formation of the Confederacy began in Montgomery, Alabama on February 4, 1861. It was formed to express state's rights and expand a centralized nation. Montgomery had to justify the legal right of secession. That justification was obtained through Georgia's Unionist Alexander Stephens. Her provided the most famous constitutional defense of secession. Stephens based his argument on the premise that rested ultimately in the people of the states, as distinguished from their state governments. The supreme law of the federal constitution did not make the national government have supreme rank or power over the people of the states who had originated the supreme law clause as part of a federal structure and who could a grant that they themselves had made.

On Feb. 8, 1861 Montgomery wrote a Constitution for the Confederate States which was later unanimously adopted by the Montgomery Congress on March 11,1861. The main differences between the U.S. Constitution and the Confederate Constitution appeared in the features that guaranteed states' rights, safeguarded slavery and instituted minor improvements in governmental machinery. Slavery was explicitly defended in the southern constitution. No federal law "denying…. the right of property in Negro slaves" could be passed. In Confederate, territory slavery was to be recognized and protected by Congress territorial government.

On Feb. , 1861, Alexander Stephens was effected vice president of the Confederate States. The government became, for the south, a successor to the federal government. The Confederacy began to face important problems in the early weeks of its existence. The tariff, navigation of Mississippi River the post office, the seizure of the U. S. funds, appeals to the other slaveholding states to join the Confederacy and the control Indian affairs. As the Southern states seceded, they seized and occupied most of the federal forts within their borders or off their shores. Only four remained in the hand of the Union with Fort Sumter being the most important. Sumter stood guard in the mouth of the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. South Carolina was the first state to secede from the Union on Dec. 1, 1860. Sumter was the site of the first battle of the Civil War. Sumter was of importance to the Union because it ahs became a symbol for the Union. To give it up, Lincoln felt, was to violate his sworn oath to protect the properties of the U. S. and the northerners looked on Sumter as a test of the presidents' commitment in his inaugural address that no more surrender's would take place. April 1th major, Anderson surrendered the Fort Sumter because of lack of supplies and extensive fire damage inside and out. Following the attack on Fort Sumter, four more stated seceded (Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina). As the war progressed geographical planning and technological advances began to play a major role in the war, along with the first draft act passed by the Confederacy in April of 186. This draft caused as many problems as it solved. The draft act brought about the prisoner of war issue, the issues of exchange, parole, release, and the Confederates treatment of black soldiers. The confederates refused to return black Union soldiers. Confederate Army executed or enslaved captured black slaves.

As like any war, the Civil war was very costly. The difficulties of financing the war aggravated the problems of the Confederacy. They were unable to finance a war without much gold and silver, without a financial plan and a community resolve to use taxation as an economic tool. The southerners never tried heavy taxation because the government had no means to collect taxes, and the people were reluctant to pay them. Therefore, they relied on paper, which dropped in value as the war went on. Earlier in the war, Alexander Stephens proposed the idea of the "produce loan". His proposal was to issue 8% bonds up to $100 million dollars on the cotton crops of 1860 and 1861, buy ironclad steamers, and send the cotton to Europe, where it would stored until it's price reached 50 cents a pound, then it would be sold at 10 times the value of bonds. The produce loans had planters turning over their cotton and commodities to the government in return for Confederate bonds. Some planters did not like the idea of parting with their cotton for government paper so the loan proposal failed. Therefore, the Confederacy turned back to the printing press. The confederate paper money was never made a legal tender, for it would increase the value the notes. More and more treasury notes rolled from the printing press, all other forms of official currency were driven into hiding, and the Confederacy was soon plagued by the lack of uniform currency. There was counterfeiting everywhere. The Confederacy suffered from severe inflation and debt throughout the year. Until the southerners began trading across the lines to the enemy, which helped to bring greenbacks and scarce goods which were converted into supplies to support the troops in the fields. This was one of the events that led up to the collapse of the confederacy. Some other symptoms of the approaching collapse of the Confederacy was the Richmond's government response to political challenges of having no political parties, conspiracies existing in some of the southern countries and the embarrassment suffered of having spies working for the Union. These symptoms and the illegal activity of the currency caused more tension in the south.

From which Alexander Stephens challenged the administration of which he was a part, and opposed attempts to give the Confederate president much needed powers. If the right to suspend the writ of habeas corpus was granted to the president then Stephens predicted in 1864(quote) Constitutional liberty will go down, never again to rise on this continent." "Far better that our country should be overrun by the enemy, our cities sacked and burned and our land desolate," than that the people should thus suffer the citadel of their liberties to be entered and taken by professed friends."(Unquote). Stephens began initiating a peace movement in Georgia, endorsing governor Browns rhetoric about the re-establishing the principles of the declaration of independence-" the right of all self-government and the sovereignty of the states". Nothing came about this Stephens peace movement, but by him schooling southerners in the conviction that their president was responsible for their suffering and by playing on the traditional themes of southern concerns he and governor Brown had won the people.

As the war came close to, an end religion began to play a major role on the Confederate part and the other southerners. Southerners believed that God intervened in human affairs shaping events, rewarding the good and punishing the bad. They believed that God was on their side at first because of their many victories in battle. God's impact helped resigned southerners to defeat and in a self-fulfilling prophecy lessened their resolve.

On Feb. , 1865 Lincoln met with Confederates headed by Alexander Stephens among the Union transport "River Queen" lying in Hampton Roads, Virginia in a futile attempt to arrange satisfactory peace terms, after 4 hours terms were not agreed upon. When the South surrendered later that year, Stephens was imprisoned for a brief time. In 1866, he was elected U.S. senator from Georgia but the Senate refused to seat him because the he has served as a Confederate Congressman and northerners were afraid. Northerners wrote to a newspaper stating that "What scares is the idea that the rebels are all to be let back…and made power in the government again, just as though there had been no rebellion". He was a member of the U.s. House of Representatives from 187 to 188 and in the later year was elected governor of Georgia; he died in Atlanta on March 4, 188.

The defeat of the south in the civil war was considered to have decided the question of secession in favor of the federal government; the U.S. Supreme Court confirmed this decision.

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How successful were Nazi Youth Policies?

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In 1 the year the Nazis came to power Hitler already had girls saluting the Nazi flag every morning at school, this is but one action that shows the importance he placed on support of the youth. The youth were the future of Germany and if Hitler was to stay in power he needed to create a generation of adults who would be totally loyal to him and his Party.

The Nazis started indoctrinating the children from a young age, especially the boys who began attending the Pimpfen at just 6 years old, girls began slightly later in the Jung Mädel at 10 years old. From this age on the children were brought up with Nazi influences until they were 18 for boys and 1 for girls.

The main aims for boys and girls were quite similar but there were two major differences and the distinct organisations reflected this. They both were taught to be obedient, to idolise Hitler and to strengthen the German Nation, much emphasis was also placed on sacrificing oneself for the good of the nation. However all these aims contributed to different things; to making the boys strong, obedient fighters and the girls were all groomed to be strong mothers who could bear healthy children.

However whether they were effective or not is dependent on a number of things, firstly on the definition of effective, whether it achieved its aims and if it achieved them in the desired way. And if effective is taken to mean that they achieved some or all of their aims one must taken into consideration why people accepted (or didn't accept) the things the Nazis did.

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If Nazis desired fanaticism then in some cases they did succeed, there were some young men who conformed with incredible enthusiasm. One man remembering his days in the Hitler Youth recalls that he was "full of enthusiasm, what boy isn't fired by high ideals such as comradeship, loyalty, honour". However despite this enthusiasm he does not mention idolisation of the Fuhrer, but in 14 a report by the SOPADE claimed that "the chaps are so fanaticised they believe in nothing but their Hitler". Of course there is the possibility that these feelings have been exaggerated in order to consolidate the power of the Nazis but if all cases were reported like this then it would be a fair conclusion to say that the Nazi Youth policies were very effective.

However at the other end of the spectrum there were young men and women who totally rejected all of Hitler's youth movements, one such group were the Edelweiss Pirates who were so fervently against Hitler they were prepared to die for their cause. A favourite song of theirs contained the line "And smash the Hitler Youth in twain/ Our song is freedom love and life", this blatant rebellion was not tolerated and many Pirates were killed, as shown the photograph of 6 being hung for treason.

However in between these two extremes fall many people who conformed (or not) in a variety of ways and for a variety of reasons. There were people who conformed to the Nazi regime and accepted it because they believed it could further their careers, another extract from a SOPADE report claims "many believe they will find job opportunities through the persecution of Jews and Marxists". There is the suggestion here that they did not find jobs but the belief in opportunities was enough to lure some people to conformity. Other young people would conform through apathy, they didn't really take the time to understand the Nazis but did it because they saw no reason not to. One German man recalls that "On the whole we didn't know much about Nazi ideology", which suggests that him and many others around him just 'went along with the crowd'.

Further down the conformity spectrum are people who conformed through obedience a common excuse used by men being tried for war crimes. One man remembering his youth in 187 claims that they "were politically programmed to obey orders", these young people may not have agreed with all the things the Nazis promoted but the desire to impress their superiors with exemplary discipline was strong enough to overcome doubts.

Moving on to those who didn't conform begins with those who merely didn't conform because of a natural desire to rebel a little, one report described the breaking of National Socialist laws as a "favourite game" amongst the youth in Germany. Some of the laws were still being followed through any number of reasons that I have already discussed but obviously the Nazis were failing somewhere in their aim for total obedience and idolisation of the Fuhrer. The party could not make people conform when they let their young people down, not at first perhaps but gradually people became disillusioned with certain aspects. In his book "Youth in the third Reich" A. Klone states that "Later when I became a leader the negative aspects became obvious". Apparently all was not well within the Party if people can see the negative in something there is no way they can be totally internalised and fulfilling all the aims Hitler had for his young people. One cannot idolise someone in whom faults have become obvious. Once these faults became apparent the next step was to criticise the Nazis but unlike the Edelweiss Pirates some criticised anonymously, obviously this was a safer way to spread the anti-Nazi feeling. Some youths had gratified a wall with "Down with Nazi brutality" and each time it was removed new subversive messages would appear. Also underground magazines would show cartoons, which criticised the treatment of young people within Hitler's Youth, organisations.

Provisionally I would argue that the Nazis achieved very limited success in indoctrinating the Youth of Germany, they aimed to make people idolise Hitler and be totally obedient to the Party. But from the evidence so far it would appear that but for a select few only the superficial aims of the party were achieved, such as physically fitness and strengthening the Party the internalisation was barely achieved, even of those who appeared to support the Party many had ulterior motives.

Many other historians have commented on this aspect of Nazi Policy. In the book 'Nazi Germany' A. Wilt claims that "as many as 5% percent of the German youth backed the Nazis", however it is worth remembering that it was written in 14 a long time after the event. Indeed this extra time could have been beneficial in collaborating more evidence but there is little evidence of how much these people backed Hitler or for what reasons. It is a rather vague sweeping statement which gives rise to many more questions about who these people were and whether they truly supported the Nazis or if it was all for show. Other Historians have given more specific comments on the effectiveness of Youth Policies; K. Fischer claims that although the Nazis couldn't destroy Germany's European heritage they were "able to miseducate and misuse a whole generation of young people". Although also written after the event in this case the extra time appears to have given the author time to evaluate all the evidence. It suggests that although the Nazis did not manage to internalise all the young people they little they did do was enough to at least begin to achieve their aims of domination, even if they did not achieve the idolisation of their people.

Some historians have argued that the Nazis were too successful in what they did, that their ideals of having people whom obeyed all their orders created a generation of people who were incapable of thinking for themselves at all. In the book 'inside Hitler's Germany' B. Sax and D.Kuntz suggest that because of this "they would…not resist the regime, they were incapable of either providing political leadership…or contributing intellectual or technical skills". This source appears to be quite critical of the Nazi regime overall and this gives rise to the suggestion that perhaps it will be over critical of the education policies. But it does give a point of view that someone living on Germany at the time would be unlikely to put forward and is therefore useful in showing a new negative aspect to the debate. This suggests that the policy was not successful in that it had not been thoroughly thought through and achieved things beyond the minds of even top Nazis. Perhaps it was too successful?

With this additional information I stand by my original provisional judgement that the Nazi Youth Policies were not particularly successful in that they did not achieve their primary aims of indoctrinating the German Youth to create a generation of people who would worship Hitler and be totally loyal to the party. Indeed there were a number of young people who were grateful for the opportunities Hitler gave them and they did internalise the Nazi ideology. However there were a sizeable number who did not accept what was happening even to the point where death was a more viable option than living under such a regime and those who secretly rejected the party and did not even try to achieve Nazi aims. Even amongst those who appeared loyal there were many who had their own reasons for supporting the Nazis, some wished to further their careers, other were desperate to please and impress superiors and some were merely apathetic to what was going on. The Nazis were not infallible and allowed the youth to observe their mistakes, the young people were given the opportunity for disillusionment which prevented them from the giving the party the total loyalty and idolisation that was desired. Whilst there were all these other options to total internalisation it is difficult to say that The Nazi Youth Policies were successful, there were a number of aims set out but mostly they were not achieved in the space of time the Nazis had. Indeed it had limited success but not enough to claim that the policies overall were successful.

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Rome, rome, rome

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Rome, Rome, Rome

"Or perhaps not only the seasons but everything else, social history included, moves in cycles. Not, however, that earlier times were better than ours in every way- our own epoch too has produced moral and intellectual achievements for our decedents to copy. And such honorable rivalry with the past is a fine thing." This quote taken form Tactis, referring to his quote, that not just in time, but by advancements things repeat. He states that he does not think the past was necessarily better, because it is apparent that because of such advancements and achievements to people's everyday lives, each day is made easier with every advancement. Simply by this, the past is not always better than the present.

Regardless of weather the world was created by the big bang, God, or another alternative explanation, it is certain that Greece was blessed. Ideal utopia, every reason for one to bicker over possession. The Story of Divine Origin was fought by two brothers, Romulus and Remus. They were the sons of the war god Mars and beautiful princess. Because of their conditions, they were left to die of exposure on the Tiber river. Rescued by a kind soul, they were raised and when they grew old enough they both desired to build a city of their own, so they built the most beautiful city, in an perfect position. the only conflict was that both wished to rule. Romulus and Remus drew their swords for a fight, in which Romulus dominated, therefore naming the city after himself, Rome. Rome was not the first city and certainly not the last, as Romes empire expanded, there was a need for control throughout its reign. Many smaller city-states popped up who were in need of a central form of government, to keep control.

In 47 BC, Caesar, who was one of such chosen rulers, had won the civil war against Pompeii and was to become the dictator of Rome. Julius Caesar had many plans for Rome, the biggest of which was to recreate the republic to better suit the needs for the majority of the population, not just the patricians . Caesar helped spring Rome up to it's golden age as the rising or good times. However, The people he trusted most, as well as his friends turned against him in 44 BC when he was assassinated. His fellow senators insisted that their actions were taken in order to save the republic. With respect, Caesar's old partner, Mark Antony, stepped forward to take with on the power and position that Caesar left off with. to power; however, Octavian, Caesars son stood before the senate to read his fathers will. It was decided that Octavian should hold power, not Mark Antony, because it was only right for a direct relative to take over his rule. Eventually, in 0 BC, Octavian defeated Mark Antony and would be the ruler for the next twenty years over Rome. Octavian who changed his name to Augustus, meaning to look up to or exulted, now created a new form of government called the princeps. The name Augustus seems rather arrogant, as well as making a statement that he is above human standards and he will remember Caesars mistakes, such as not respecting the senate. This new form of government which Octavian developed gave more power to those citizens who were not princeps or who would soon become Rome's new emperor.

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In 14 BC, the namesake of the Tiber river, began his reign as a Princeps. He did many important things such as establishing a good military reputation in the Rhine area. His rule was cut short when his assistant, Caligula, grew tired of his masters ideas, or simply went crazy and convincing a gullible guard to murder him and claim that Claudius should reign as the next Emperor. The only noteworthy adjustments made by the new emperor was his contributions to an increased monarchy power and control over the republic. After five years as a ruler, Claudius mysteriously turned into a homicidal freak by murdering some of the empires best army generals and senators. Either by embarrassment or simply that he was afraid of the consequences, Claudius committed suicide in 6BC. Many more emperors yet to come. In the long run, Rome established the taboo to never have a center of power to just one person. At times people were even appointed because no one wanted to be the emperor. The majority of who were appointed or decided to take the position were either murdered, committed suicide, or simply resigned. Little did Rome know, that enemy tribes had been migrating west threatening Rome's boarders.

Many such factors lead to Rome's golden age. The Most important factor would be how Rome started out determined to have a successful, yet public run government which served the people and was only established to keep control and have a central form of government. The original idea of a republic started off with good intentions; however, too many more fortunate people saw opportunity without much work in the government. One major reason the government switched from being a service driven by the people, to a monarchy, is because of the class separation.

Plebeians and Patricians were the two major classes in ancient Rome. The Plebeians were the common folk of Rome who tended the fields and brought in the food. They did not have much say in the government, despite the fact that there were open elections, The patricians usually got the vote, because of their position as well as their money. Patricians were members of the upper class who were privileged enough to be born into their class. They typically ran large estates where the farmers worked for them in the fields. The only requirement for running for office was to have served as a solider. The Roman's way of living reflects modern day in many ways such as how our classes are divided. It is obvious today and in the past what class you belonged to. The lifestyle we live today directly reflects almost exactly how the Roman's carried on their normal lives.

The idea of a republic to rule over Rome was a brilliant plan, which had it fallen into fair, expecting, open minded hands would have run much smoother and efficient. However, the men who decided they should have ultimate power, made the "republic" of Rome more of a monarchy. The public did have some rights, such as the right to vote, under certain circumstances, and the right to run for a public office, if elected. A republic where people had opportunities was a mere illusion, something to stride for. Multiple strategies for public involvement included a senate of multiple leaders, usually ranging from about 100-00 elected senators. This reflects todays congress which closely resembles their assembly. When there was a head, or center of power, usually a monarchy to the Roman people, this can be most closely described as a president in modern times.

Many ideas in which ancient Greece formulated from, such as polytheism, or the belief in more than one god. The Greeks used this theory to explain their questions they could not answer. Each god Held or her own special purpose, symbolism and religious ness cities. The idea of more than one god still exists today in many countries surrounding Greek and over in the middle east and Asia. However, because of the spread of Christianity, many old rituals and cultures died out once polytheism was not acknowledged any further. Christianity became the beginning of monotheism, or the belief in only one God. Separation between church and state became a huge political issue, because it was once the church leaders who ruled the kingdom, and not with the acknowledgments of different religions, people saw to it that the church should not have complete control over the empire. In modern times,

Near the end of The Roman Empire, borders and control were being lost. The once strong, boarders of Rome began to crumble, along with multiple other issues which brought Rome to it's knees. Because the Romans in who expanded their empire wished for total control over their kingdom, multiple people were appointed as temporary emperors to keep their city-state under control. The monarchy idea of running a country was not accepted by people well, obviously, because the public had either overthrown their ruler, or in some shape or form, they were disposed of. Constantine single handedly reshaped the empire into an one man ruled monarchy. He did this by flocculating many ideas in which the people would approve of, therefore support his leadership. He also was the first to openly acknowledge the practice of Christianity and abandon the idea of polytheism, or the belief in more than on God. Christianity had the imperial support as well as a majority of the peoples, because of this, Rome became a city highly influenced by Christianity.

At the same time as the blossoming of a new religion, the boundaries once considered invasion-proof, were falling, and fast. Many invaders wished to take control over the symbolic city of Rome, were nearing their way into the empire, crushing any attempts made to stop their intruders. Rome knew it's golden age was nearing an end, with the infantries multiple defeats, people began to pack up their bangs and begin the long migration into other empires surrounding Rome. The once strong Roman empire was nearing its last stages of an actual city; However, as military strengths began to suffer the republic began to fall too far from its peak that it was now impossible to regain Romes position. After Rome split and the republic fell, the tow sides, the East and West both attempted to become something bigger and went their different paths, neither of which regained much power or position. The West side even attempted to recover the Pax Romana; however, without much luck. But though the Empire itself no longer existed, the Christian church still acknowledged the symbolic meaning of what Rome once was. Through such political figures as Caesar, which came from the heart of Rome's golden age the roman empire began to play vital role by founding the basics of the medieval European Foundation. Rome, Rome, Rome, past to present, present to past. Each rely on each other to form the other. Greece to Rome, ancient Rome to modern day America, a crazy cycle which will continue as long as human civilization exists and continues with advancements.

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Mass in B minor

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Precisely what Bach had in mind while composing the B Minor Mass remains one of the intriguing mysteries of music. Bach, born into a Lutheran family, remained a Lutheran throughout his life 1, could not have written a mass meant for the Catholic Church alone. Yet he wrote a Mass Ordinary in Latin, complete with all its sections, which is unique to the Roman Catholic Churches during Bach¡¦s time as the Latin Ordinary had long since been replaced by German equivalents in most other Lutheran congregations.

Instead of performing the entire Catholic mass, the Missa, which contained only the Kyrie and Gloria, were often used in Protestant churches. However, Luther had retained not only the Kyrie and Gloria in excelsis, but also the Credo, and Sanctus movements of the Catholic Ordinarium Missae for use in Protestant churches. Thus, in Leipzig, performances of the Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, and Sanctus were not uncommon during Bachs lifetime , which may explain why Bach¡¦s Mass contained these 4 sections instead of just the Kyrie and Gloria. Bach could have stopped there but he went on to include the Osanna, Benedictus, Agnus Dei and Dona Nobis Pacem, which was highly unusual for a Lutheran Mass.

Bach scholar Christoph Wolff explains that the Mass could not be performed in a Protestant church, since Luther had banned the sections of the ritual relating to the sacrifice. Furthermore, the proportions of the work, in no less than twenty-four movements, would have ruled it out. On the other hand, the Mass was also unusable on the Catholic side, because of textual and formal differences. 4.

The composition of the Mass was stretched over a very long period of time, with the Kyrie and Gloria completed in 17, and the Credo in 1747.5 The Mass was completed only towards the end of Bach¡¦s life. With this timeline, we could tell that Bach was in no hurry to neither complete the Mass nor intend it for performance on any special occasions. Thus as Christoph Wolff has mentioned, it might have been Bach completing the Mass for the sake of completing it, to make it a full Mass Ordinary and for no ¡§discernible practical purpose¡¨.

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Bach was the unhappy music director of Collegium Musicum at the point of time when the Missa (the Kyrie and Gloria) was completed. He had had many disputes with the rector of the school, Johann August Ernesti, since 170, whose ambitious nature often challenged Bach¡¦s authority.6 It was noted that Bach wrote a request humbly applying for the position of court composer when he presented the Missa to the new Elector of Saxony Frederick Augustus II (king Augustus III of Poland) in 17. Thus it was very possible that Bach wrote the Missa more for the sake of his career than for his church.

During the time of composition of the Missa, Bach was busy with his duties in the Collegium Musicum as well as St Thomas School. The Missa had two ¡§borrowed¡¨ movements; the Gratias adapted from the opening chorus of Cantata No , Wir danken dir, Gott, while the Qui tollis is a development of the first movement of No 46, Schauet doch und sheet. This could be evidence that Bach was in a hurry to complete the Missa in time for the coronation of the new King of Poland. Given his heavy duties plus his emotional distress during that period, he might not have the time or energy to write a completely new Missa for Augustus II. Thus he borrowed. This again supports the argument that the main purpose of the Missa was a career move.

Frederick Augustus II had notoriously renounced his Lutherian faith for Roman Catholism in order to get crowned.7 Since the Missa could be used for both the Lutheran and Catholic churches, Bach was clever enough to stop just there for the time being. If he wrote a complete mass for the Catholic Church, it might have created unhappiness among the Lutheran community especially since Bach¡¦s ancestors had been famous for their services to the Lutheran church. 8 It might also have been unacceptable for the Catholics to have a Lutheran write their mass.

Bach was finally awarded the title of Court Composer in 176 after many contributions such as the writing of flattering congratulatory cantatas for members of the royal family. The title provided the old composer with comfort at that time, since it has elevated his status which eventually resolved his authority conflict with Ernesti.

After Bach had assumed the title, he resigned from the position of director of Collegium Musicum in 17. He mostly supplied cantatas to the church and with the protection of the Dresden court, he concentrated more on his private compositions. During this time, Bach also studied Latin polyphonic liturgical compositions, especially the stile antico tradition of strict counterpoint.10

It could have been Bach fretting over how to carry on with the Missa. On one hand, he was obliged to write a Catholic Mass since he was under the Dresden court. On the other, Bach could be battling his strong Lutheran faith to write a Catholic mass, which probably explained why the completion of the Mass dragged on for so long. It was unlike Bach to take such a long time to produce a piece of work. Despite the incomplete mass, Bach went on to write numerous other compositions for the keyboard and organ.

In May 1747, Bach went to Berlin with his son, Wilhelm Friedemann to visit his daughter-in-law (wife of Bach¡¦s other son Carl Philipp Emanuel who happened to be court musician there) who was expecting their second child. During his visit, he was warmly received by Frederick II (King Frederick the Great of Prussia), who was an enthusiastic musical amateur and player of the flute.11 It would have seemed common for any renowned composers to be received by royalty. However, Prussia was at war with Austria at that time and Saxony, being an ally of Austria was considered to be an enemy of Prussia too. Incidentally, Saxony was defeated, which made Bach¡¦s trip to Berlin seem like a planned move for his career.

In between all these, Bach probably attempted to continue composing the Credo from the Missa, or trying to complete his half completed Credo. With his newfound status with the King of Prussia, Bach might have felt less compelled to finish up the mass. Thus he went on to write music dedicated to Frederick II instead. After completing ¡¥A Musical Offering¡¦ for Frederick II, which would nonetheless please the king immensely, Bach was likely to be satisfied with where he stood in terms of fame and recognition. This was probably the time where he became more dedicated in completing his unfinished business such as the Mass and The Art of Fugue.

Bach also became more daring and imaginative in his approach when completing the rest of the controversial Mass which was intended for an orchestra so large that it was unheard of for a church service during his lifetime. The vocal parts are equally matched by the instrumental forces. Thus he probably did not intend for the Mass to be performed as a whole. He might have tried fusing both Lutheran and Catholic masses into one for purely experimental purposes.

As mentioned earlier, Bach had been studying the stile antico and applying it in many of his later compositions.1 It could have been him practicing the use of ¡§stile antico¡¨ before actually embarking on writing a Catholic mass, a field which was new to him. He could be trying his hand at writing a Catholic mass while placing his Lutheran ideals into them at the same time. Bach even wrote the Mass in the Italian opera tradition, with numbered movements. He had never stopped borrowing from his previous works, mainly cantatas. He fully exploited the popularity of the parody technique among the Baroque composers throughout the composition, thus showing his interest at experimenting with the composition rather than creating a new one.

Bach never heard the Mass performed as a whole in his lifetime. In fact he might not have even intended or expected it to be performed at all given the conservative society he was in. As scholars have pointed out, Bach¡¦s autograph score of the complete Mass had four title pages ¡V for the Missa, the Credo, the Sanctus and the Osanna, Benedictus, Agnus Dei and Dona nobis pacem.1 He probably did not even think of his work as a whole and had intended them for different churches. Since he completed everything before his death, he could have requested for a full performance if he had wanted. Yet he did not.

Considering these points, it is also not wrong to say that Bach did not compose the Mass in B Minor. In fact, if one examines the score, the work only started off in B minor. The main key was in fact D major. Bach had written the Mass in 7 keys, namely G minor (tragic consummation), F# minor (transcendent suffering), A major (joy and grace), B minor (human pain), D major (worldly power and glory), E minor (crucifixion) and G major (blessedness). 14

The Mass was probably compiled after his death by researchers. The smooth transition and fluidity between the links of all the pieces probably lead researchers to think that they belonged together. However, one can never be sure too sure regarding any conclusion since Bach did complete the pieces around the same time and there haven¡¦t been evidence that Bach had been writing other incomplete Masses during that time, which might have been the different continuations for these pieces.

In addition to that, since Bach¡¦s death, the attempts to perform his Mass as a whole had been successful so far and well-received. In fact by listening to the whole performance at one go, we can experience the mystery of the vastness of the Mass and the grandeur of its conception. Perhaps Bach did imagine for the Mass to be performed as a whole and hope that it would be in the future and not during his lifetime.

References

1. http//www.arcticwind.com/cdb/writings/bach.shtml

. Stauffer, George. The Mass in B Minor. Simon & Schuster Macmillian (17)

. http//www.alumni.caltech.edu/~xinh/luther.html

4. http//inkpot.com/classical/bachmmass.html

5.http//www.sfbach.org/concerts/0000notes.html

6.http//odur.let.rug.nl/Linguistics/diversen/bach/leipzig.html

7.Stauffer, George. The Mass in B Minor. Simon & Schuster Macmillian (17)

8.http//www.arcticwind.com/cdb/writings/bach.shtml

.http//odur.let.rug.nl/Linguistics/diversen/bach/leipzig.html

10.http//www.alumni.caltech.edu/~xinh/compos.html

11.http//www.baroquemusic.org/bqxjsbach.html#L1

1.http//www.discordia-music.com/Bios/bach.htm

1.http//www.sfbach.org/concerts/0000notes.html

14.http//www.alumni.caltech.edu/~xinh/balanc.html

Please note that this sample paper on Mass in B minor is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Mass in B minor, we are here to assist you. Your cheap research papers on Mass in B minor will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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