Minimalist Program and Syntactic linearity

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Minimalist Program and Syntactic linearity

What drives the evolution of generative grammar from Government Binding theory (GB) into Minimalist Program (MP)? The constraint of the variation of parameters is an important driving force now that GB does not define clearly the parameter setting, which leads to many theoretical problems. Minimalist Program rises up to the occasion by confining parameter variation to LF and PF, thus, overcoming the previous deficiency and bringing a series of modification to Generative Grammar.

1.Steps toward Minimalism

In spite of its radically different analyses, the Minimalist Program is a progression rather than a complete U-turn. The overall aim continues the tradition of making statements about human language that are as simple and general as possible; ¡®From the early 160s its ¡®generative grammar' central objective was to abstract general principles from the complex rule systems devised for particular languages, leaving rules that are simple, constrained in their operation by these UG principles' (Chomsky, 15b, p. 88). The minimalist framework continues this drive for simplification. In particular it draws on concepts from Chomsky's late 180s papers, such as Full Interpretation and Economy of representation and derivation.

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The principle of Full Interpretation claims that there are no redundant elements in the structure of the sentence each element plays some role, whether semantic, syntactic, or phonological, and must be interpreted in some way. The Principle of Economy is more general requirement that all representations and processes used to drive them be as economical as possible.

How does the Principle of Economy lead to minimalism? If the linguistic system needs to be as economical as possible, in terms of both how it represents and generates structures, clearly the smallest possible set of devices to account for language phenomena should be used ¨C the defining characteristic of the Minimalist Program. Economy of representation requires that representations of syntactic structure contain no more than the required elements (the principle of full Interpretation may be a consequence of this condition). But it was a general requirement with no implication about the number of levels involved.

The linguistic system has been assumed to use two external interface levels, which are interpreted by the semantic and phonetic components, LF and PF, and an internal level that represents basic lexical information, D-structure. These three levels are connected by a single level of representation S-structure. These combine to form the well-known (upside-down)T-model.(1)

The Minimalist Program questions whether al these levels of representation are really necessary. In the minimalist framework, only LF and PF are really necessary and there is the possibility of doing away with D-structure and S-structure. Of course there must still be a lexicon and a ¡®computational system' which forms LF and PF representations from lexical information. Hence the ideal minimalist design would be something like

Lexicon

PF ¨C(phonetic component)

LF

Where the lines represent the computations that form the LF and PF representations, drawing from the lexicon.

Developments in some areas of the GB theory caused tensions for other areas which had long been taken as crucial to the whole theory. Something had to give the result was that in the Minimalist Program, the A-and A-bar-positions are no longer taken to be basic, their effects stemming from more fundamental principles concerning how the computational system works.

A second GB problem is the concept of government, which, despite having considerable empirical motivation, is nonetheless an ¡®arbitrary syntactic relation' (Lasnik, 1, p.). Moreover there are many different notions of government, some working better than others for certain phenomena; fortunately, no version is perfect for all purposes. Take the following government relation as an example

= governs ß if and only if

(1)= is a governor (e.g. N, V, P, A, etc)

() = and ß mutually c-command each other

() if = governs ß, then = governs the specifier of ß

This was chosen mainly because of its relative simplicity, but it allows too wide a range of relationships for it to be considered perfect.

A more serious problem is that, under these assumptions, AGR governs, and therefore can assign Case to, the specifier of TP. If this is so, there needs to be an explanation why the subject moves into the specifier of AGRP to receive Nominative Case instead of staying in the specifier of TP. Whatever solution we give to this problem takes us further away from pure explanation as it clears up a problem caused by an imperfect definition of government rather than by the nature of grammar itself ideally, the answer might be expected to lie in the definition of government rather than in patching it up with yet more stipulation.

The minimalist solution to the problem is to abandon government as a fundamental notion of the theory. Of course, this is a radical move.

Other developments within GB theory itself also paves the way for the development of the Minimalist Program. One recurrent theme since the work of Pollock (18) has been the distinction between languages that raise Verbs to the inflectional nodes, such as French, and those that seem unable to move main Verbs out of the VP, such as English. In the latter case, there is the problem of how Verbs which do not move get their inflections, the usual solution being that, at least at some level of representation, the inflectional elements themselves lower onto the Verb. It expressly goes against the Empty Category Principle, which says that the trace of a moved element must be properly governed. Moving a head to a lower position in a tree means, if anything, the trace will govern the moved head rather than the other way round.

The solution is to assume that Verbs are given their inflectional properties and forms in the lexicon; an already ¡®inflected' Verb is inserted into its base position in the VP and so does not have to move anywhere to become inflected. The inflectional nodes, instead of adding inflections to a bare Verb, perform the function of checking that the inserted Verb has the appropriate features when it moves into them.

Procrastinate plays a large part in explaining the different Verb movement properties of French and English and states that movement operations should be delayed for as long as possible. So in English, where the Verb is not raised until LF, we can see that Verb movement accords with Procrastinate. The analysis allows us to assume that some movements actually take place later at LF rather than occurring to other cases, diminishing the role of S-structure almost to nothing.. This paves the way for the Minimalist Program to reduce the levels of structural representation to the bare minimum, LF and PF, and it demonstrates once more how the Minimalist Program develops directly out of the GB approach.

.A Brief Sketch of the Minimalist Framework

So the theory attempts to reduce the grammar to its minimum, reconstructing the effects of the grammatical mechanisms that it abandons on the basis of more fundamental, and therefore more explanatory, considerations. What remains are the bare essentials that necessarily have to be assumed given that languages have meaning and form, it is not possible to dispense with the interface between the grammar and semantics (LF) or with that between the grammar and phonetics (PF). Furthermore, there has to be some syntactic mechanism that forms the structures that appear at the interface levels, i.e. a computational system of some kind. Finally, there will be considerations of what constitutes a legitimate object at each representational level, which possibly have their foundations in the interpretative components themselves. Ideally, the grammar should consist of only the bare minimum.

One important difference between minimalism and GB is that, in the former, structures are built up piecemeal. In GB, D-structure was presented as a complete structure and not much was said about the internal process of how it was formed it was an ¡® ¡°all-at-once¡± operation' (Chomsky, 1, p.1)

The Minimalist Program is transformational and so a movement operation is part of the computational system. As well as actually building trees, the computational system also moves elements about in the trees. This may indeed be part of the tree formation process as elements may be moved into structural positions created by the process itself. For example, consider the position where the AGR system has just been added to a partially formed tree with the subject still inside the VP, presented here in a simplified tree

AGRP

AGR'

AGR TP

T VP

DPV'

John

V DP

Loves Mary

As it stands here, AGRP has no specifier position. So, for the subject John to move into AGR, the specifier position will need to be created and then the subject moved into it, forming the tree

AGRP

DP AGR'

John

AGRTP

T VP

DP V'

t

V DP

LovesMary

The operation which moves elements about is called simply Move. The tree building process is thus made up of two basic operations¡ªMerge and Move.

As to how the computational system is constrained, it is obvious that the constraint offered by the convergence condition at the interface levels seems inadequate. As is well known, movement is not an unconstrained operation; in particular movement needs to be kept local. Following the basic observation of Relativized Minimality, Chomsky proposes that movements are constrained by a Minimal Link Condition that only accepts movement into the nearest relevant position ¡®= must make the ¡°shortest move¡±¡­' (Chomsky, 15b, p. 401). The other two major constraints on the Move operation, one is Procrastinate which delays movement for as long as possible, the other one is called ¡®Greed', which allows movement of an element only if it satisfies some property of the moved element ¨Cmovement cannot be made to satisfy the properties of an element that becomes related to the moved element by the movement process ¡®Move raises to = to a position ß only if morphological properties of = itself would not otherwise be satisfies in the derivation' (Chomsky, 15b, p. 400). Their general effect is to cause a derivation to crash if they are not adhered to.

To wrap up, the computation system starts off with a Numeration of the lexical items from which the SD is to be formed. Then, by the operations of Merge and Move, SDs are built up piecemeal, with the Move operation being constrained by the Minimal Link Condition, Procrastinate and Greed. Hence the whole system is in a sense ¡®driven' by the lexical items and their morphology; ¡®operations are driven by morphological necessity certain features must be checked in the checking domain of the head, or the derivation will crash' (Chomsky, 1, p.). This process proceeds to a point at which the derivation splits into phonetically relevant and semantically relevant information Spell-out. From here two separate representations are formed. The computational system continues to form structures after Spell-out, but, if the end points of these operations do not conform to a Full Interpretation condition, the derivation crashes. If these conditions are met at both LF and PF, the derivation converges. We can represent this in the following diagram

Numeration

PF

Spell-Out

LF

In this diagram, the lines represent the workings of the computational system Full Interpretation is applied to both interface representations, but of course differently according to whether semantic or phonetic information is being interpreted.

The thrust of MP is to reduce the grammar down to its bare essentials, with no more stipulation than absolutely necessary. Everything is cut out but the interface levels and the minimum of operations. If successful, the Minimalist Program accounted for by a very small number of assumptions about the structure of the grammar, most of which are necessary for any grammar. It's not appropriate to come to a hasty conclusion how successful the Minimalist Program will be in pursuing its goal. As Chomsky puts it, ¡°We are left with hard and challenging questions, of a new order of depth, and prospects for a theory of language with properties that are quite surprising' (Chomsky, 15b, p. 44). But we can never ignore MP due to the fame and popularity of the guru, Chomsky.

.Application of MP in syntactic linearity of Simultaneous Interpretation

In Yang Chengshu (00)'s ¡®Syntactic Linearity in Simultaneous Interpretation ¨C An Exploration Study of its Operation through the Use of the Minimalist Program', theoretic research developed in modern linguistics on the natural language generative process is used to explore both the process of language derivation and the governing principles of language operation during simultaneous interpretation. Furthermore, that paper tests the validity of the principle and methods of syntactic linearity.

The paper was triggered by the fantasy that interpretation performance will be improved greatly if interpretation reformulation/derivation coincides the production way of natural language.

Natural language derivation is concept-driven so the ideal interpretation process goes like this the interpreter transforms the received phonetic information of the source discourse into Concept, and then to Words, and finally derive/generate grammatical sentence in equivalent words or phrases according to the connotation of the concept.

The study and application of Economy Theory may provide solutions to problems in Simultaneous interpreting and facilitate operation of simultaneous interpretation derivation/reformulation.

Major components of Economy Theory in association with syntactic linearity under discussion are

(1)Greed the movement of an element is to satisfy morphological requirement of the moved element;

()Procrastinate any movement should be procrastinated until necessary;

()Fewest step fewest steps should be taken to move an element;

(4)Least effort least effort should be taken in movement;

(5)Shortest link shortest distance should be taken to move an element.

Syntactic linearity is applicable to simultaneous interpreting, sight interpreting and even consecutive interpreting. Being not only an interpreting skill, syntactic linearity is considered operational principle concerning interpretation quality and efficiency in the whole process of source discourse analysis and translation derivation.

If simultaneous interpreter were to adopt the near-natural language derivation way to arrive at interpretation reformulation, he has to

(1)take the phonetic information of the source discourse as words or concepts of natural language;

() spot the information focus of the source discourse;

()reduce the interference of the source language;

(4)decide how to handle the different word order in both source discourse and target discourse;

(5)and then produce interpretation according to principles of natural language derivation.

To eliminate or reduce source language interference, the interpreter should also implement ¡®segmenting (information)', ¡®retaining (the original sentence form)', ¡®moving(elements of the discourse when necessary)', converging(or adjunction)' and ¡®deleting(redundant element)', thus achieving the ultimate goal of syntactic linearity.

Among the above mentioned methods, all except segmenting and retaining are in accordance with MP.

Concrete Examples

1.Please allow me to address some words/ on behalf of / my colleagues of Merck's Executive Board.

Ç ÈÝΠ˵¼¸¾ä °£¬À ú±í£¬µÂ¹úĬ¿Ë¶­Ê á±í ïÎ ÃǵÄÐÄ â¡£

The segment in bold face indicates added part.

.It is an honor for me /to celebrate with you / the 10th anniversary of our company.

±¾ÈË(movement)ºÜÈÙÐ £¬ÄÜ Ú³¡¸÷Πͬ ¶¶È±¾¹ ˾ʮÖÜÄêÇì¡£

4.Looking Ahead

It seems that Chomsky's Minimalist Programme can be applied to syntactic linearity in English-Chinese Interpretation with some modification. Further trail and error test will be implemented in other language combination. And Chomsky is always on the move in his theory, we will have to collect more data to prove the validity of the application and the attempt to provide more efficient solutions to problems in simultaneous interpretation.

Bibliography

Chomsky, N. 15. The Minimalist Program. Cambridge, Mass. MIT Press

Cook & Newson, 000. Chomsky's Universal Grammar An Introduction. Beijing Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press

³Ì¹¤£¬18£¬Chomsky×î¼ò·½°¸ÐγɵÄÀíÂÛ¶¯ ò£¬Íâ ï½Ì § о¿£¨×Ü11£

ºÎÏþì¿£¬000£¬Chomsky×î¼ò·½°¸µÄз¢Õ¹£¬Íâ ï½Ì § о¿£¨ µÚÆÚ£

î³ÐÊ磬00£¬ ¡®¾­¼ÃÐ ­ ò'̽ÌÖ¡®Ë³ 'µÄ Ë Ã£¬Öйú·­ £¬£¨µÚ6ÆÚ£

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I like the look of the film. The washed-out color really makes the desert look dry and hot. The right actors were cast for the right roles, all three of the leads play very subdued characters, this film would have been entirely different if actors with more over-the-top acting styles were cast. The tone of the film is perfect, it matches its look.

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"The search for the causes of crime is futile but the opportunities to commit crime can be controlled". Discuss with reference to situational crime prevention.

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"The search for the causes of crime is futile but the opportunities to commit crime can be controlled". Discuss with reference to situational crime prevention.

Introduction.

Ever since criminology was established it has sought to answer as to why some people choose to commit crime. Cessare Lombrosso (185-101) "has been called the father of modern criminology" (Williams p141) known as the first phrenologist, he believed that people were 'born' criminals and destined to a life of crime. Primarily Lombrosso believed that a person's physical appearance and make up were what determined a person's potential criminality, for example "enlarged jaw and cheek bones" (Williams p14). Today we know that every possible theory as to why some choose to live a life of crime has been investigated, and the answer is simple, there will always be reasons such as poverty and drugs, but what about those who simply just choose crime as a way of life, they always have and probably always will.

Finding out what causes crime is futile (pointless, not worthwhile etc.) as people are always going to commit crime, therefore those in control; the Government and the Police, shouldn't concentrate one hundred per cent on trying to find the causes of crime but should concentrate on and investigate more effective ways to control and prevent crime.

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"It is better to prevent crimes than to punish them" (Beccaria p11 in Muncie et al). Crime prevention needs to be investigated greater by those in control and also by the individual. It can be very frustrating having you're car broken into, this type of crime is usually opportunistic, for example the offender walks past, sees a mobile phone and decides that he/she would like to steal it, "there are some purely opportunist crimes, where a person responds 'there and then' to a set of attractive environmental cues (e.g. a teenage boy calls at a friend's house, find the back door open and £0 unguarded on the table)" (Bottoms et al p4 in Maguire et al).

Trying to establish what causes this type of crime is pointless as it is never going to stop people from breaking into cars. Car owners should be aware that in today's society car crime is a very big problem, be that opportunist theft of valuable's from inside the car or actually stealing the car itself. Individual car owners should take it upon themselves to employ several crime preventative measures so as to make it as hard as possible for their car to be broken into.

car should always be fitted with an alarm, this won't stop the passenger window being smashed ( the easiest way of breaking into a car) bit with the load alarm being activated it is likely to deter the offender from continuing with the act.

Cars should always be parked somewhere safe, if it was left unattended in a dark side street it would stand a greater chance of being broken into; a car criminals are very good at spotting vulnerable and easy targets such as this, which is why in order to maximise the security of an individual's car they should always leave it in a car park or area which has security.

Valuables should never be left on display, if a car doesn't have an alarm and immobiliser (device that doesn't allow the car to be started without a special key) fitted the offender will be able to notice this by the fact that there will be no flashing light on the dash board. So if a car has been left in an area which could be considered as an unwise decision, has no alarm and has valuables on display, such as a car stereo; the car then becomes very unsafe and a very easy target for the criminal.

Closed Circuit television (CCTV) is a very big part of today's crime prevention tactics employed by the Government, and contrary to popular belief its main objective is not to catch criminals in the act of committing a certain crime but it is actually to deter them from doing so. In 16 the then Home Secretary, Howard, said "I am absolutely convinced that CCTV has a major part to play in helping to detect and reduce crimes and to detect criminals" (Pease p 71 in Maguire et al).

The thought of being watched is a very good crime prevention tactic, but there is an alleged opposite affect that CCTV has; and that is that it pushes crime away to other areas where there is no CCTV, this can be related to what's mentioned above about car crime, a car is more likely to be broken into in a car park that has no CCTV, this is an argument that suggests that CCTV does push crime to other areas, but also shows how it is a good preventative tactic.

Today CCTV is everywhere, "By 14, it was reported that ninety five per cent of local authorities were contemplating the installation of CCTV in city centre locations" (Taylor p11). There are numerous cameras in shops, shopping centres , pubs, night clubs etc. CCTV is never going to answer what the causes of crime are, and it has never asked that question; it's purely and simply a crime control and prevention method. As well as preventing crime it can make people feel more secure, a person walking home at night alone will feel safer if there is CCTV in the area that they are walking.

Usually the only fear that a criminal has is of getting caught. As mentioned above CCTV's primary goal is not to catch criminals but to make them think twice before committing a crime; therefore crime prevention is its main aim and fear of getting caught is in itself a very good crime prevention method without the help of CCTV. With cameras everywhere the criminal stands a greater chance of being arrested and prosecuted if they decide to commit crime in areas with CCTV.

Warehouses and other similar industrial establishments with surveillance are not an easy a target for burglars as those who do not have it, crime prevention comes down to common sense, just in the same way that the individual car owner should employ crime prevention tactics to keep their car free from criminal intervention, so should the warehouse or shopping centre. These businesses shouldn't only rely on CCTV but they should also have visible security such as store detectives as CCTV alone isn't always able to keep track of everybody in the store or by the time the camera operator has tracked an offender they might be at the exit and have the opportunity to make a fast escape.

If CCTV's main objective was to catch criminals then it would all be hidden, for example pin hole cameras and other measures such as plain clothed store detectives, but it isn't; it's usually well advertised with signs saying 'store detectives' and 'CCTV in operation' and 'shop lifters will be prosecuted', all of which prove that CCTV is purely for crime preventative measures, it's only in certain circumstances that it is used in other ways, such as actually identifying offenders who choose to ignore the warnings that CCTV promotes. The same can be said for the other type of CCTV we have in Britain; speed cameras on our roads. Driving faster than the speed limit is against the law and therefore it is a crime; it is also very dangerous, if the aim of the cameras was to catch speeders (those driving faster than the speed limit for that particular road) then the cameras would be hidden, obviously if a driver goes through a speed camera too fast they will be prosecuted, but there main objective is to prevent people from driving too fast and causing accidents. People know what the penalties are for breaking the law so sign saying 'speed cameras ahead' deter people from speeding, therefore preventing them from driving too fast and breaking the law; just in the same way that CCTV in our city centres and shopping centres act as an extremely good crime prevention method.

Being a victim of burglary can be very harrowing, the figures have probably increased but the 18 British Crime Survey revealed "a burglary every minute throughout the country, with a one in forty likelihood of being burgled in a year" (Muncie p in Muncie et al). Questions have been asked as to why somebody would burgle another person's home, is it because of poverty, being addicted to drugs and needing to find money to pay often very high prices for their habit! In the same way as car crime, burglary is often opportunistic (see quote above by Bottoms), for example, a burglar walks past a house and sees a laptop computer on a table and decides that he/she would like to have it! Criminology seeks to answer questions as to why people decide to do these things, but will it ever really find the answers?

What criminology can do is help those is help those who are vulnerable do everything they possible can to protect themselves and their property, as in today's society burglaries are always going to happen to those who are vulnerable. Lowering opportunity is vital to protect one's home "Opportunity is a key factor offending levels can be reduced by taking practical steps to reduce the opportunity for criminal behaviour" (Johns p 17).

Student houses in particular are seen as an easy target by potential burglars; especially if the house has been left empty during the holidays, and even more so if valuables are left in these houses unattended during these holiday periods.

Once again crime prevention comes down to common sense. When living in a high risk area (such as a student house) it is imperative that one has home contents insurance, as it is well known by the criminal society that students bring with them to university high valued electrical goods such as televisions, stereos and computers. Having insurance isn't going to stop a house from being broken into, but at least if it does happen the victim will have the opportunity to have their stolen property replaced.

Having good quality doors and windows very important in protecting a house, double glazing is far more secure than old wooded window frames, the doors and windows should always be shut and locked properly when not in the house.

A persons home doesn't usually have CCTV like a shopping centre has, but that could prove to be a very good security measure if the home owner decided to invest in this type of equipment. Having a burglar alarm fitted and on display to the public is a very good crime deterrent, a house is far more likely to be burgled if it can be done quietly; which is why those who have alarms in their home's should never become complacent and should therefore always set the alarm when they go to sleep, as burglaries are more likely to take place during the night. One final home protection/crime prevention tactic is to make it look like there is somebody at home at all times, a house is more vulnerable if it is empty, a radio should be left playing and the lights should also be left on.

Knowing what the causes of burglary are isn't going to protect a person's home in the same way as taking the above preventative measures, and once again as with the other crimes mentioned, it is imperative to make it as hard as possible for the criminal to commit the crimes mentioned above; which is of course the best type of crime prevention.

The majority of this essay has been about theft and CCTV, the final type of crime going to be discussed is attacks on the person. There are numerous types of personal attacks which a person could have inflicted upon them, ranging from common assault, actual bodily harm, grievous bodily harm all the way to murder; also there a sexual assaults which can happen, these range from indecent assault all the way to full rape (these crimes can happen to men as well as women).

Once again criminology has always sought to find out why these crimes against other people happen, there are numerous theories as to why some choose to commit rape; is it purely through sexual frustration? Or is it due to other reasons such as it gives a rapist a feeling of power over another person when he commits this most horrendous of crimes?

Street violence can often be associated to young men and alcohol, "western cultures usually encourage young single men to socialise widely, and therefore the normal and encouraged lifestyle for this group within society is also one which exposes them to the most risk from street crimes" (Williams p15). Finding the answers as to why street violence and sexual assaults happen is not going to stop those who commit them from carrying on committing these nasty crimes against other people. The best thing to do is to try prevent these harsh crimes being committed upon intervals. The following preventative measures can be related to any type of personal attack (see above) not just rape.

To prevent a personal attack, a person should never go out at night on their own in an area that they are not familiar with, this adds to the risk as not knowing what's round the corner is dangerous, as the potential victim could walk up the wrong street at the wrong time; leaving themselves very vulnerable. When on a night out people should always try to walk home in groups as much as possible, as a group is far less likely to be confronted by potential attackers than an individual. It is not always possible to walk home with friends as people live in different places, if this is the case those on their own should carry a personal attack alarm and have a mobile phone so they can call a friend or the police if they suspect that they are, or have a high chance of being attacked.

Attacks don't just happen at night; it's just that there is a greater risk of being attacked at night, as the darkness acts as good cover for the attacker and also there will be less people around which all adds to the potential risk of being attacked.

If going out alone, the person doing so should inform their family/house mates what time they are going to be home at, so as the third party can notify the authorities if the first person isn't home when they said they were going to be, if they suspect that something has happened!

As with the other types of crimes discussed in this essay, every investigation into why these crimes against other individuals happen is never going to actually stop them from happening. The best thing to do is for individuals to take measures to protect themselves and their property, as the majority of crime prevention measures are pure and simple common sense; don't give the criminal easy opportunities to commit crime!

Conclusion.

The causes of crime are never going to be truly established, quite simply because there are hundreds of criminological theories as to why some people choose to commit crime, but the sad fact is that those who do commit crime; just simply do! Even as early as 1876 when Lombrosso published L'Uomo Delinquente (the criminal man), ideas were being established as to why people choose to live a life of crime.

The only way it is possible to ever establish a true cause of crime is to look into new and better ways of preventing and controlling crime.

It is a fact that the majority of crime is what is known as opportunist crime; for example stealing a purse from an opened handbag, for the criminal it's a simple case of being in the right place at the right time, usually with this type of crime it isn't premeditated (thought about in advance). For the victim it's a case of being at the wrong place at the wrong time!

To conclude the only way to stop crime is to keep one step ahead of the criminals, get more police, get more CCTV, get more industrial security and more schemes like neighbourhood watch, make it as hard as possible for the criminal. Every possible cause of crime has been investigated and that alone does not stop those who commit crime from doing so; in today's society we have criminals, and we shall always have criminals so the only way to stop crime is by trying to control it; the best way for achieving this is for those who are in power (the Government and the Police) employing more of the crime prevention methods discussed in this essay, and for the general public to have a bit of common sense; as stated in the recent television commercial 'don't give them an easy ride'. Bibliography.

Beccaria, C., "On Crimes and Punishment" in Muncie, J., Mclaughlin, E., & Langan, M., (Eds) Criminological Perspectives A Reader. SAGE Publications Ltd. 16

Bottoms, A.E., & Wiles, P., "Environmental Criminology" in Maguire, M., Morgan, R., & Reiner., (Eds) The Oxford Handbook of Criminology (nd ed) Oxford University Press. 17

Jones, S., Criminology (nd ed) Butterworths. 001

Muncie, J., "The Construction and Deconstruction of Crime" in Muncie, J., & Mclaughlin, E., (Eds) The Problem of Crime. SAGE Publications Ltd. 16

Pease, K., "Crime Prevention" in Maguire, M., Morgan, R., & Reiner,., (Eds) The Oxford Handbook of Criminology (nd ed) Oxford University Press. 17

Taylor, I., Crime in Context, A Critical Criminology of Market Socities. Polity Press. 1

Williams, K.S., Textbook on Criminology (4th ed) Blackstone Press. 001

Please note that this sample paper on "the search for the causes of crime is futile but the opportunities to commit crime can be controlled". Discuss with reference to situational crime prevention. is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on "the search for the causes of crime is futile but the opportunities to commit crime can be controlled". Discuss with reference to situational crime prevention., we are here to assist you. Your cheap research papers on "the search for the causes of crime is futile but the opportunities to commit crime can be controlled". Discuss with reference to situational crime prevention. will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Tupac Shakur and the 7 Day Theroy

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The 7 Day Theory

Tupac Shakur, a well known rapper around America, died on Sepmtember 1, 16. Or did he?? After much research, many now believe that Tupac is really alive and living well in Cuba. What do you believe? Well it doesnt matter because I bet you, the reader, have not even bothered to reasearch the topic as countless others have. So let me lay down the facts for you.

People try to tell me, The autopsy photos show that he was killed. Well, have you ever seen the photos? They are very crummy and hard to make out. But one thing you can make out is the lack of tattoos on his body. Tupac had tattoos all over his body so where did half of them go? And also, they cremated him the day AFTER the murder. Since when do you cremate someone the day after the murder. Also what about in his songs when he always talked about a closed casket funeral. So why didnt they make good to his wishs and do so. Because he isnt dead.

Now lets talk about that number seven. Why does it keep coming up? Many believe that is shows that Tupac will come back 7 years after his death. If I were you I would be thinking that it is just a coincidence. Well, it happens so many times that it has been ruled at as a possiblity. Here are some examples. Tupac was gunned down exactly seven months after All Eyez On Me was released. He was shot on September 7th and survived on 7th, 8th, th, 10th, 11th, 1th, and died the 1th. (7 Days) Tupac Shakur was 5 years old. His age adds up to 7 ( + 5). Even his time of death, 40, adds up to 7 (4 + 0 + ). His brand new double album entitled R U Still Down? was released on November 5th. + 5 = 7.

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Tupac changed his name to Makaveli after coming out of prison. When in prison he read serveral books written by Machiavelli, an Italian philosopher who advocated the staging of ones death in order to evade ones enemies and gain power. Could Tupac be taking his advice?

These are only some of the reasons Tupac is alive. If I were to list all of them, it would take several pages to list. Hopefully I will do it some day or I can just wait until September 1, 00 when Tupac comes back to prove to you that he is alive.

Please note that this sample paper on Tupac Shakur and the 7 Day Theroy is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Tupac Shakur and the 7 Day Theroy, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college papers on Tupac Shakur and the 7 Day Theroy will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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The honesty

If you order your cheap custom paper from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on The honesty. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality The honesty paper right on time.

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The garden

The idea of planting a garden is a major motif in the play. Willy is always discussing the idea of planting a garden. He says, The grass dont grow anymore, you cant raise a carrot in the backyard. At the end of the play, one of his last acts in life is his futile attempt at planting seeds in the backyard of his fenced-in house. The garden is symbolic of Willy needing to leave something behind for people to remember him by. Something that people will think about and remember him as a great man. Willy never achieved success in life, and he also never planted his garden. (He does in the end of the play, but it is assumed that will not grow.)

Seeds - Seeds represent for Willy the opportunity to prove the worth of his labor, both as a salesman and a father. His desperate, nocturnal attempt to grow vegetables signifies his shame about barely being able to put food on the table and having nothing to leave his children when he passes. Willy feels that he has worked hard but fears that he will not be able to help his offspring any more than his own abandoning father helped him. The seeds also symbolize Willys sense of failure with Biff. Despite the American Dreams formula for success, which Willy considers infallible, Willys efforts to cultivate and nurture Biff went awry. Realizing that his all-American football star has turned into a lazy bum, Willy takes Biffs failure and lack of ambition as a reflection of his abilities as a father.

Throughout the play the Lomans in general cannot distinguish between reality and illusion, particularly Willy. This is a major theme and source of conflict in the play. Willy cannot see who he and his sons are. He believes that they are great men who have what it takes to be successful and beat the business world. Unfortunately, he is mistaken. In reality, Willy and sons are not, and cannot, be successful. This reality versus illusion problem eventually brings about Willys downfall.

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Money vs. Feelings

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Money vs. Feelings

It is said that true happiness can only be achieved by possessing both money and a warm heart that could generate complex feelings towards the others. Unfortunately, there are very few who can be integrated into this category and therefore, we can infer that one can't reach both very easily.

Usually, during their lives, people try to propose themselves some targets to reach. Some want to have a wealthy and prosperous life, other s want a simple, happy life and to be surrounded by loving family. However, it is sad to realize that if people were put to choose between money and feelings, most of them would certainly choose money.

It is outrageous to see how society has deviated from the way of a simple and normal life to a life filled with the hunger for money and the avidity for more and more. People are blinded by greed and envy towards other people's money and thus, they tend to become some unscrupulous robots that would do anything in order to become affluent persons. They would be even capable of committing thefts, robberies or crimes, hence becoming some senseless creatures. Consequently, this attests that if you have a lot of money you don't necessarily have to possess those virtues that convert you into an admired person. Do my essay on Money vs. Feelings CHEAP !

Moreover, the more money you have, the more problems you encounter. There have been many cases in which rich persons have been robbed or even killed in order to inherit the wealth. On the other hand, if one had accumulated his money through a not very orthodox way, his consciousness or the police would follow him every night and he won't be able to close his eyes at night. It has been also demonstrated that money doesn't bring happiness but, even more, they can very easily change people for the worse.

Even tough money can nowadays buy everything from various items to court sentences and people, they cannot buy one's mind and soul. This is because feelings are something superior and abstract, that could never be controlled by anyone's money.

Please note that this sample paper on Money vs. Feelings is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Money vs. Feelings, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on Money vs. Feelings will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Actibated Sludge

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Activated sludge is a common method used to biologically treat municipal wastewater. The method was first developed in England in the early 100's. In 11, H. W. Clarke studied the use of microorganisms in the purification of sewage through aeration. Edward Arden and William Lockett followed by carrying out similar experiments. They determined that high levels of purification could be reached through this biological process. They also integrated the use of recycle to the aeration stage. Arden and Lockett reported their findings to the Society of Chemical Industry in 114. Since then, the theory of activated sludge as a wastewater treatment process has continued to develop in small steps to the present day.

The activated sludge method typically consists of a well-agitated and aerated reactor and a settling tank. Depending on the design, the reactor can either model a plug-flow reactor, or a CFSTR. If the reactor is designed to be long and narrow, it will model a PFR, while circular tanks approximate a CFSTR.

It was discovered that wastewater could not be purified solely by aeration, but that it needed to be activated by the living organisms that are contained in it. Thus, the sludge consists of undecomposed materials as well as living organisms. The sludge is recycled to the reactor, but overgrown sludge is known as excess sludge, which needs to be disposed of. A schematic of a typical activated sludge process is shown in Figure 1.

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Figure 1-A schematic representation of an activated sludge process

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The activated sludge process has been extremely successful in treating wastewater, in spite of all the variable process conditions that can make purifying water complex. The process has the potential to metabolize a wide variety of organic compounds and can also remove compounds containing nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, etc. There are many variations of the process that have been developed to increase purification, such as membrane-coupled systems, and high purity oxygen systems. Some argue that activated sludge is the best method compared to all other biological processes, from both a technical and economical standpoint.

Overview

As mentioned before, wastewater treatment is a very complex process. Wastewater is made up of a vast amount of different compounds and solids. The purification process often includes a primary treatment before the wastewater even enters the sludge tank. The primary treatment may involve some type of screening or filtration to remove large solids. It also may involve conditioning treatments to adjust the pH, or add specific nutrients, which will be vital to the growth of cells. This treatment can remove 45-60 percent of the suspended solids, and even higher removals can be reached with chemical additions. After the primary treatment, the wastewater is then fed to the sludge tank. The activated sludge process generally occurs in two steps. The first step is the transformation of the contents of the wastewater into the activated sludge, and the second step involves the separation of the sludge from the cleaned water, typically through sedimentation.

The contents of the wastewater can be transformed into activated sludge by hydrolysis, adsorption, enmeshment, accumulation or storage. Larger solids that are found in wastewater generally are transformed through adsorption or enmeshment. Colloids, which have a diameter of approximately 10- microns, mostly adsorb on sludge flocs, while larger particles tend to become enmeshed in the void spaces between the sludge flocs. Accumulation, like enmeshment and adsorption, is a fairly fast process. It involves the uptake of small organic molecules. Experiments have shown that mono- and disaccharides, lower fatty acids, alcohols, amino acids, and other similar substances can be accumulated under rich nutritional conditions1.

Hydrolysis and storage, on the other hand, are rather slow processes. Hydrolysis is a process in which surface bound substrate is utilized by the cells. This process transforms some particles into a solved matter, typically a degradable organic matter. Solved matters can then be further transformed either into new cell substances by the bacteria or can be oxidized.

Once the wastewater components have been transformed into the sludge, it then moves on to the final clarifier. The sedimentation process heavily relies on the formation of flake-shaped sludge flocs in order to be efficient. The flocs then settle to the bottom of the clarifier where they thicken and are scraped into the withdrawal cone. The sludge is then recycled back to the sludge tank, while the excess is removed. The cleaned water effluent is removed from the process.

Terminology

Several parameters are of great importance in the understanding and designing of an activated sludge process. One of these parameters is the degree of biological oxygen demand, BOD. The BOD is typically reported for a 5-day time period. To find the BOD5 for a sample of wastewater, the sample is seeded with bacteria and is incubated at 0°C for 5 days along with an unseeded blank. The BOD5 is then calculated according to Equation 7.

()

Another important parameter that needs to be considered when designing an activated sludge process is the MLSS, or mixed-liquor suspended solid concentration, which represents the concentration of activated sludge in the sludge tank. The MLSS is often determined through filtration, with a pore size of 4.5 microns, followed by drying at 105°C, although this does not represent the actual solid concentration, it is a good approximation4.

Design

Contracted engineers do the design of most activated sludge process plants, however, they are restricted by state standards. A guide often used is The Water Pollution Control Federation (WPCF) Manual of Practice 8 (MOP 8)1. Most standards are used to control the amount of certain compounds in the effluent of the treatment process. These standards are set up by local and state agencies and are designed to meet current U.S. EPA Standards.

The first step in designing a purification process is to determine the type of wastewater that needs to be treated. For existing plants, this can be accomplished by studying past plant data. For new plants, however, much of the criteria need to be estimated based on the population. Table 1 shows typical characteristics of wastewater in the United States. It also is necessary to consider the recycle stream of the sludge. The recycle stream can increase toxins in the effluent by as much as 0%.

Concentration

ItemWeakMediumStrong

Biochemical oxygen demand(BOD)5, mg/l1100400

Chemical oxygen demand (COD), mg/l505001000

Suspended solids, mg/l

Total100050

Volatile8016575

Settleable solids, mg/l5100

Nitrogen (as N), mg/l

Organic8155

Ammonia1550

Total04085

Phosphorus (as P), mg/l

Organic15

Inorganic510

Total4815

Table 1-United States Wastewater Characteristics 1

In designing an activated sludge plant, the main tasks are to design the sludge tank and the clarifier, which will be discussed here. However, it is also important to note that in the final design of purification plants, the engineer must also design certain accessories, such as aeration diffusers and return sludge pumps.

When designing a sedimentation tank as a clarifier, both depth and shape need to be determined. Typically, the shape of the clarifier is either circular or rectangular. Most often rectangular clarifiers are used in large plants, or in plants that do not have a lot of space. Table compares the most documented circular clarifier, known as a "deep circular clarifier with a center flocculation well", to the most documented rectangular clarifier, a "Gould clarifier".

Deep, Center Floc CircularItemGould Rectangular

15-0 ftSidewater depth1 ft

Difficult, erraticScum/floating solids removalEasy, complete

GoodEase of covering odor/VOC controlExcellent

HighHead loss for flow distribution among clarifiersLow

HighSite requirementLow

NoCommon wall constructionYes

Table -Comparison of a Rectangular and Circular clarifier 1

Typically, state regulations set a maximum surface overflow rate, SOR. In most instances, the smallest clarifier that meets the state regulations for SOR is an efficient way to design the clarifier.

The main unit that needs to be designed in a purification plant is the activated sludge tank. Designing an activated sludge tank utilizes the rate expressions for cell growth and substrate use, and material balances for both the biomass and the substrate. The Monod equation can be used to approximate cell growth in the system.

(1)

where

m=Specific growth rate

mmax=Maximum specific growth rate

Ks=Saturation constant

S=Substrate concentration

Figure shows the flow rates and concentrations of both the cell mass and the substrate

in an activated sludge system.

Figure -Flow rates and concentrations used in material balances 7

By writing mass balances for the biomass and the rate-limiting substrates around the sludge tank

and the clarifier, an equation to determine the volume of the sludge tank can be derived 7.

()

where

V=Volume of sludge tank

F=Feed flow rate to sludge tank

=Substrate yield coefficient

=Solids' residence time

kd=Tate of cell death

X=Concentration of cells

S0-S=BOD5 removal rate

Thus, for a specified BOD removal rate, it is possible to determine the volume of reactor required.

As of 11, the depth of most typical sludge tanks is approximately 15 ft, or 4.6 m. However, more recent studies have shown that deeper reactor tanks may be equally efficient while consuming less space. Gnirss and Frolich conducted studies on both 10 and 15 m deep reactor tanks from 10 to 15. It was determined that sedimentation as the clarifying process would not work with deeper reactor tanks, so experiments were conducted with 10 and 15 m tanks with dissolved air flotation unit as an alternative clarifier. The 15 m tanks were found to be too costly, however, the 10 m tanks seem to be a good alternative to conventional purification processes. Some advantages of the deeper tanks with flotation are that they take up less than half the area of the typical sludge tank, the return sludge volume is very small, and there are not any problems with scum on the secondary clarifier. The only disadvantage is the small amount of experience with the deeper tanks. At the time of publication of the experiments, no full-scale plant of this type exists, although the authors reasoned that scale-up of their pilot plant should work at least as well .

Variations

Improvements are constantly being developed to advance the quality of wastewater treatment plants. For example, high-purity oxygen is often used in place of air to improve the quality of the purification system. Another improvement that has been found is the membrane-coupled activated sludge process, MCASP. This process uses the typical sludge tank, but varies from the conventional process in that it uses membrane filtration as a clarifying process rather than sedimentation. The MCASP can either have the cross-flow microfiltration unit located outside of the sludge tank or directly within. Figure gives a schematic of both configurations.

Figure -Schematic representation of MCASP with external (a) and internal (b) membrane filtration 4

The MCASP require cross-flow to ensure that the membranes are not clogged too quickly. The main advantage of using a MCASP is that higher quality effluents can be achieved. This is because there is a complete separation of solids due to the membrane depending on the pore size. The main disadvantage of this system is that it requires almost double the energy as a sedimentation system. Thus, each plant must be considered independently to determine if it is cost-efficient or not to install a MCASP4.

The addition ozone has also proved useful in the advancement of wastewater treatment. When ozone is added to the sludge tank, it increases its biological degradability. Therefore, the amount of excess sludge can be greatly reduced through ozonation. The process involves sludge digestion and wastewater treatment that are conducted simultaneously in the same sludge tank. Figure 4 shows a schematic representation of the ozonation process. Studies have shown that in most wastewater can actually be treated without any excess sludge. More recent studies have found that intermittent ozonation can be used in place of continuous ozonation in order to cut expenses, while still greatly reducing the amount of excess sludge6. Another advantage to ozonation is that it improves the settleability of the sludge.

Figure 4-Schematic Representation of an ozonation process 8

Separation Problems

Several problems can occur in the sedimentation tank. If the sludge to does not exhibit certain qualities, such as fast settling velocities ( 1m/h), leaving a clear supernatant after settling, and not rising within a - hour period after settling, the efficiency of the system is greatly damaged. Dispersed growth is one problem that might occur in the sedimentation tank. This occurs when the bacteria do not form flocs and instead grow in small clusters. The small clusters then are able to rise out of the settling tank with the effluent. This problem, however, rarely occurs in industry1.

Pinpoint flocs are similar to dispersed growth in that they are small flocs that escape with the effluent. Pinpoint flocs are generally flocs with a diameter that is less than 100 microns. They can occur from a low production of glycocalyx, which helps to form a polymetrix matrix of firm sludge flocs that aids in keeping the small flocs from escaping.

Rising sludge also creates a problem since the sludge is not settling to the bottom. This can occur due to either a high adsorption of oils and fats or from the occlusion of gasses. Non-filamentous bulking is a condition where the sludge loses its ability to flow. Yet another possible problem that can occur in sedimentation is filamentous bulking which leads to foaming.

Environmental Concerns

As mentioned before, the EPA regulates the amount of certain pollutants, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur that can be contained in the effluent and released into the environment. These pollutants are originally contained in proteins, which are found in the influent to the sludge tank. When the bacteria degrade the proteins in the wastewater, certain inorganic products are released. Table summarizes these inorganic products. A high concentration of some of these inorganic substances can have an adverse affect on the surrounding environment.

Element Contained In ProteinsInorganic Product Released

CarbonCarbon Dioxide (CO)

HydrogenWater (HO)

NitrogenAmmonium Ion (NH4+)

OxygenWater (HO)

PhosphorusPhosphate ion (PO4-)

SulfurSulfate ion (SO4-)

Table -Inorganic Products released from the oxidation of Proteins

Nitrogen can lead to an assortment of environmental problems. Released nitrogen leads to a depletion of dissolved oxygen. Nitrogen follows the path shown below where each ammonium ion consumes two molecules of oxygen gas before it is converted to a nitrate ion.

NH4 + O NO-

NO- +O NO-

Nitrogen can also lead to the toxication of fish and other aquatic life. Ammonium, nitrite, and nitrate ions are among the most toxic. Nitrogen wastes, as well as phosphate ions, greatly contribute to eutrophication, which is the premature aging of lakes and ponds. Since both of these wastes are nutrients to algae and other plant life, the disposal of nitrogen and phosphorus ions lead to the overgrowth of these plants.

While phosphate can be easily removed from sludge plants by precipitation with alum or possibly another flocculant, nitrogen requires an extended aeration along with periods of anoxia. This leads to denitrification in the plant. However, this and other known methods are extremely costly. One interesting new finding in the area of nitrogen removal is the possibility of using wetlands to enhance the natural process of bacterial denitrification5. There exist bacteria that can naturally convert nitrite and nitrate ions into the harmless nitrogen gas. The nitrogen gas can then be released into the atmosphere. While wetlands may provide a cost-effective way to remove nitrogen from the effluent of wastewater treatment plants, they do require a lot of space and only are appropriate for specific locations.

Conclusion

Activated sludge as a municipal wastewater treatment has proven to be a very efficient way of purifying wastewater. Although, some problems can occur with this process, many of them have been overcome due to the lengthy history of this type of purification. With added technologies of ozonation and deeper sludge tanks, activated sludge can only improve as a cost-effective way to treat municipal wastewater.

References

1Eckenfelder, Wesley W., and Grau, Petr. 1. Activated Sludge Process Design and Control

Theory and Practice. Technomic Publishing, Lancaster.

Gerardi, Michael H. 00. Nitrification and Denitrification in the Activated Sludge Process.

Wiley-Interscience, New York, NY.

Gnirss, R. and Frolich, A. Peter. 16. Biological Treatment of Municipal Wastewater with

Deep Tanks and Flotation for Secondary Clarification. Wat. Sci. Tech. (4).

4Gunder, Berhold. 001. The Membrane-Coupled Activated Sludge Process in Municipal

Wastewater Treatment. Technomic Publishing, Lancaster

5Horne, Alexander. 15. Nitrogen Removal from Waste Treatment Pond or Activated Sludge

Plant Effluents with Free-Surface Wetlands. Wat. Sci. Tech. (1).

6Kamiya, T. and Hirotsuji, J. 18. New Combined System of Biological Process and

Intermittent Ozonation for Advanced Wastewater Treatment. Wat. Sci. Tech. (8).

7Shuler, Michael L. and Kargi, Fikret. (00). Bioprocess Engineering, Basic Concepts.

Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.

8Yasui, H, Nakamura, K. Sakuma, S. Iwasaki, M, and Sakai, Y. 16. A Full-Scale Operation

of a Novel Activated Sludge Process Without Excess Sludge Production. Wat. Sci. Tech

(4)

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