Freedom

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Freedom is being free. This country is free. The constitution states the freedom of speech and religion. Doing whatever is of interest to you whenever you feel like doing it.

Yesterday I was passing through Mamou and decided to stop at the store. When I parked the car I noticed a man standing on the shoulder of the road across the street where I was. He was preaching about God. He said to the public, "when you need help, don't turn to alcohol or drugs. Turn to God. Ask him for help." I was shocked to see that he was a white man in a black man's neighborhood. I thought the police or a prejudice citizen would stop him or make him leave, but he continued to say what he had to say. I realized that he was expressing what he felt through his freedom of speech and religion.

I recently moved out of my parents' house for freedom. I am now free to take on new responsibilities and be my own boss. I can tell myself what needs to be done and no one can tell me otherwise. I go to school five days a week to further my education in becoming a registered nurse. On the weekends I go to work in Washington at the antique school mall. I depend on that job to pay my rent, phone bill, and insurance note.

I was born and raised in the Catholic Church. In high school, sometimes I thought of switching to Baptist because all of my First Baptist friends talked bout how much fun they have on their trips.

Not long after I turned seventeen, I got my weekend job at the antique mall. As a result of this job I wasn't able to make to church anymore. I felt bad because I had never missed church before, but I had to make a living.

I think parents should have to make the decision of where their child goes to school. The school board doesn't need to consolidate the schools to mix the black to white ratio. If the students want to be in a better school they should move.

Freedom is a choice. It would be wrong for someone to tell another person what religion they have to follow. A person should be able to speak what's on their mind without feeling ashamed or put down by other people. Citizens of this country should stand up for themselves. After all, that's what American freedom is all about.

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POPCORN HISTORY

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What is the history of popcorn?

Pop! Pop! Pop! Pop! Dont you love the smell of fresh popped corn? Popcorns history dates back over 5,000 years ago. Its believed by archaeologists and researchers to be the oldest of a group of five sweet corns; Indian corn, pod corn, popcorn, sweet corn and field corn. Ancient corn pollen (not popcorn variety) has been found and judged to be 80,000 years old. This pollen was found two hundred feet below where the site of Mexico City sits today.

Popcorn was originally grown in Mexico but somehow it had spread globally through India, China and Sumatra years before the first European explorers arrived on North Americas shores.

Popcorn ears over 5,600 years old was found in the Bat Cave in New Mexico in 148 and 150. The size of these ears of popcorn ranged from 1/ inch to inches long and are the oldest ears of popcorn known.

Write my Essay on POPCORN HISTORY for me

Popcorn was popped by throwing it on sizzling hot stones tended over a raging campfire. Naturally, as it popped it shot off in various directions. The game was to catch the popcorn and the reward was snacking on it.

Grains of popcorn over 1,000 years old were disvovered on Perus east coast. Preservation methods of the Peruvian Indians was so advanced that 1,000 years later, this corn still pops.

The Indians of North and South America popped corn ,000 years ago. Teenage girls today would most likely balk at wearing popcorn to the prom but Christopher Columbus, in 14, observed West Indian natives wearing popcorn corsages as well as using popped corn to decorate ceremonial headdresses. Columbus noted in his memoirs that Indians sold popcorn to his sailors.

Cortez, another European global explorer, wrote in his diaries Aztecs decorated ceremonial garb with popped corn. He noted it symbolized goodwill and peace and how the Aztecs made necklaces and other ornaments for the gods statues with the grain, especially that of the god Tialoc, the god of rain, fertility and maize (corn).

An amazingly clear documentation of popcorn comes from an early account of a Spaniard. He records observations of a ceremony honoring the Aztec god watching over fishermen. They scattered before him parched corn, called momchitl, a kind of corn that bursts when parched and discloses its contents and makes itself look like a very white flower; they said these were hailstones given to the god of water.

French explorers, about 161 in the Great Lakes region, made mention in their documents the use of popcorn by the Iroquois. This popcorn was popped in pottery with heated sand. The Frenchmen took part in an Iroquois dinner that included popcorn soup and popcorn beer.

Popcorn was spreading through almost all tribes of North and South America by the time the Pilgrims arrived. Quadequina, a brother of Chief Massasoit of the Wampanoag tribe brought popcorn to the first Thanksgiving dinner in Plymouth, Massachusetts. The Indians brought popcorn to many of the meetings with colonists as a goodwill gesture - kind of like their contribution to the potluck meal.

Ancient poppers made of soapstone, pottery and metal have been found in Indian excavation sites. Most of these have tripod legs and are large clay containers with lids to be set directly in the fire. They were used with and without oil, depending on preference.

Some Indian tribes discovered the delicacy of popping oiled popcorn while it was still on the cob. Somehow the corn stayed attached to the cob and it was eaten in the same manner as corn on the cob. This is the ancestor of buttered popcorn. The Winnebago Indians have a long history of enjoying popcorn on the cob, stabbing a stick through the cob and holding the ear close to the fire.

During this time, crude popcorn poppers were being invented. Some were small mesh baskets fashioned with a handle made by blacksmiths. Poppers have been found measuring up to eight feet across to handle large amounts.

The colonists loved popcorn so much they served it with sugar and cream for breakfast. This was the very first puffed breakfast cereal.

Popcorn carts were seen on every street always following the crowds after their invention in 1885. These were steam and gas poppers easily pushed through parks, fairs, carnivals, conventions and expositions. Home versions of popcorn poppers were invented in 15 and quickly snapped up by those able to afford them. Believe it or not, poppers started being manufactured by young teenagers in junior-high metal shop classes to keep up with the demand.

Popcorn eating thrived until the Great Depression. It was one of the few luxuries families could afford. Sugar was rationed and sent overseas to soldiers during World War II so candy was scarce. Because of this, the American consumer ate more popcorn, in fact, three times more popcorn than usually consumed.

However, this upswing was temporarily doomed. As television came into existence and going to movie theaters slowed down, so did popcorn snacking. It took a few years for people to get back into the popcorn habit in front of the small screen. But as you can see Jolly, Jiffy Pop and Orville Redenbacher rake in billions of dollars and popcorn enthusiasts live on.

The Papago Indians of Arizona still to this day pop corn in clay pots up to eight feet wide. These pots are known as ollas. Researchers have documented these poppers go back in design 1,500 years to the South American Indian and Mexican cultures.

Microwave popcorn is responsible for $50 billion yearly sales by itself. Experiments with popcorn and the microwave date back to 145. Perry Spencer then experimented with other foods.

Today the American public eats over one billion pounds of popcorn per year; translating to seventeen and a half billion quarts! The average American chows down on approximately 70 quarts per person yearly.

Title What is the history of popcorn?

Description Indians popped popcorn over 5,000 years ago making it one of the oldest snack foods. Ancient popcorn poppers contained it instead of catching it bursting from the campfire.

There is a legend that old-timers tell of one particular summer when it got so hot that the corn in the fields stared popping right off the stalks. The cows and pigs thought it was a snow blizzard and they lay down and froze to death.

In American Indian folklore, some tribes were said to believe that quiet, contented spirits lived inside of each popcorn kernel. When their houses were heated, the spirits would become angrier and angrier, shaking the kernels, and when the heat became unbearable, they would burst out of their homes and into the air in a disgrountled puff of steam.

Popcorn

Most of the worlds popcorn is grown in the midwestern part of the United States - principally in Nebraska, Iowa, and Indiana where it can get mighty hot in the summer. Although popcorn has been with us since pioneer times, it was not until 180 that popcorn became important enough to be raised as a crop for market. Before that time, individual families raised their own popcorn or bought it from their neighbors. Since that time, popcorn has brought enough income to its growers to earn the name prairie gold.

Prehistory - The oldest ears of popcorn ever found were discovered in the Bat Cave (a site known to have been occupied by cave dwellers practicing primitive agriculture three thousand years ago) of west central New Mexico in 148 and 150 by anthropologist Herbert Dick and botanist Earle Smith, Harvard graduate students. They discovered layers of trash, garbage, and excrement, which had accumulated over two thousand years. In the trash were 766 specimens of shelled cobs, 15 loose kernels, 8 pieces of husks, 10 of leaf sheath, and 5 of tassels and tassel fragments. The deeper they dug, the smaller and more primitive the cobs, until they reached bottom and found tiny cobs of popcorn in which each kernel was enclosed in its own husk. Among those prehistoric kernels, they found six that were partly or completely popped. These grains have been so well preserved that they would still pop. In fact, they took a few unpopped kernels and dropped them into a little hot oil to prove that they could still pop. They have been carbon dated to be about 5,600 years old.

4th Century A.D. - A Zapotec funeral urn found in Mexico and dating about 00 A.D. depicts a Maize god with symbols representing primitive popcorn in his headdress. Also ancient popcorn poppers (shallow vessels with a hole on the top and a single handle) have been found on the north coast of Peru and date back to the pre-Inca culture of about 00 A.D.

10th Century - In southwest Utah, a 1,000 year old popped kernel of popcorn was found in a dry cave inhabited by predecessors of the Pueblo Indian.

16th Century - Hernando Cortes (1485-1547), Spanish explorer and conqueror of the Aztec Empire of Mexico, got his first sight of popcorn when he invaded Mexico and came into contact with the Aztec people. Popcorn was an important food for the Aztec Indians, who also used popcorn as decoration for ceremonial headdresses, necklaces, and ornaments on statues of their gods.

An early Spanish account by Father Bernardino de Sahagun (14-150), Franciscan priest and researcher of the Mexican culture, of a ceremony honoring the Aztec gods who watched over fishermen read

They scattered before him parched corn, called momochitl, a kind of corn which bursts when parched and discloses its contents and makes itself look like a very white flower; they said these were hailstones given to the god of water.

17th Century -Early French explorers in the Great Lakes region reported that the Iroquois Indians popped popcorn in a pottery vessel with heated sand and used it to make popcorn soup, among other things.

Some historians suggest, but this theory has never been proved, that when the early English colonists held their first Thanksgiving celebration on October 15, 161, an Indian named Quadequina brought an offering for the feast - a great deerskin bag of popped corn. The Pilgrims enjoyed this treat, which was to become a unique part of the American way of life. The early colonists called it popped corn, parching corn, and rice corn. Native Americans would bring popcorn snack to meetings with the English colonists as a token of goodwill during peace negotiations.

In American Indian folklore, some tribes were said to believe that quiet contented spirits lived inside of each popcorn kernel. When their houses were heated, the spirits would become angrier and angrier, shaking the kernels until the heat became unbearable, at which point the spirits would burst out of their homes and into the air in a disgruntled puff of steam.

Colonial housewives served popcorn with sugar and cream for breakfast (the first puffed breakfast cereal). Some colonists popped corn using a cylinder of thin sheet-iron that revolved on an axle in front of the fireplace like a squirrel cage.

1th Century - The first popcorn machine was invented by Charles Cretors of Chicago, Illinois in 1885. In order to test his machine, it was necessary for Charles to operate it on the street as the customer. He was issued a peddler's license to use the machine on December , 1885. Until then, poppers were made to sit in front of stores to attract attention. The huge, ponderous popcorn machine with its gasoline burner became a familiar part of the scent. Street vendors used to follow crowds around, pushing steam or gas-powered poppers through fairs, parks, and expositions. This practice continued up until the Depression years (1-1). Today much of the popcorn you buy at movies and fairs is popped in poppers made by the Cretors family.

0th Century - In 114, Cloid H. Smith founded the American Pop Corn Company in the heart of corn country (Sioux City, Iowa) and launched Americas first brand name popcorn called Jolly Time. In 15, he introduced Jolly Time in a can designed specifically for popcorn. To show his confidence in h is new package, he flagged the can with a Guaranteed to Pop statement. It was a bold statement in those days.

With the opening of movie theaters across the nation early in the 0th century, popcorn became a part of the new excitement. During the Depression years (1-1), popcorn was one of the few luxuries down-and-out families could afford. While other businesses failed, the popcorn business thrived. There is a story about an Oklahoma banker who went broke when his bank failed. He bought a popcorn machine and started a business in a small store near a theater. After a couple years, his popcorn business made enough money to buy back three of the farms he had previously lost.

During World War II (141-145), sugar was sent overseas for American troops. This meant thaat there wasnt much sugar left in the United States to make candy. Due to this unusual situation, Americans ate three times as much popcorn as usual.

When television became popular in the 150s, popcorn sales again made a sudden rise (this time by an astonishing 500 per cent!) As families started buying television sets, they were changing their life-styles and staying home more and eating popcorn as they watched television.

Caramel Corn & Cracker Jacks

In 18, Cracker Jacks, a delicious mixture of popcorn, molasses, and peanuts, showed up at the Columbian Exposition at Chicago (which opened to show the world what progress Chicago had made since the fire of 1871). It was billed as Candied Popcorn and Peanuts.

Two brothers, Fred and Louis Ruekheim, German immigrants from Chicago, came up with the idea of covering popcorn with molasses. One legend notes that the name Cracker Jack came into use when a customer or a salesman, who tried the Rueckheim product, exclaimed That really a cracker - Jack! Actually the words cracker jack was a slang expression on those days, meaning something very pleasisng. The 108 song called Take Me Out To The Ball Game with the line, Buy me some peanuts and Cracker Jacks immortalized Cracker Jacks (this song is still sung at baseball games today). Cracker Jacks became a staple food item at baseball games throughout America and the cry, Getcha peanuts, popcorn, and Cracker Jacks! is still heard at sporting events and carnivals in America.

Popcorn Balls

There is a Nebraska legend that the popcorn ball is actually a product of the Nebraska weather. It supposedly invented itself during the Year of the Striped Weather which came between the years of the Big Rain and the Great Heat where the weather was both hot and rainy. There was a mile strip of scorching sunshine and then a mile strip of rain. On one farm, there were both kinds of weather. The sun shone on this cornfield until the corn began to pop, while the rain washed the syrup out of the sugarcane. The field was on a hill and the cornfield was in a valley. They syrup flowed down the hill into the popped corn and rolled it into great balls with some of them hundreds of feet high and looked like big tennis balls at a distance. You never see any of them now because the grasshoppers ate them all up in one day on July 1, 1874.

- from American Eats, by Nelson Algren, published by University of Iowa Prewss, 1

Tens of thousands of years before there were movies, there was popcorn.

Stone Age Snack?

Archaeologists have found 80,000-year-old corn pollen below Mexico City. Because this pollen is almost exactly the same as modern popcorn pollen, researchers believe that cave people most likely had popcorn.

Popcorn probably grew first in Mexico, though it was also used in China and India hundreds of years before Columbus reached the Americas.

Tasty Fossils

The oldest popcorn ever found was discovered in the Bat Cave of central New Mexico. It is thought to be about 5,600 years old. In tombs in Peru, archaeologists found ancient kernels of popcorn that are so well preserved that they can still pop.

Sometimes, conditions can preserve ancient popcorn so perfectly that it still looks fluffy and white when the dust is blown off of it. In a cave in southern Utah, researchers found surprisingly fresh-looking 1,000-year-old popcorn.

Popcorn was probably an important part of life in the ancient Americas. On a 1,700-year-old painted funeral urn found in Mexico, a corn god is shown wearing a headdress of popcorn. Decorated popcorn poppers from around the same time have been found in Peru.

An Explosive Discovery

Europeans learned about popcorn from Native Americans. When Cortes invaded Mexico, and when Columbus arrived in the West Indies, each saw natives eating popcorn, as well as using it in necklaces and headdresses.

Native Americans brought a bag of popped corn to the first Thanksgiving. A common way to eat popcorn at that time was to hold an oiled ear on a stick over the fire, then chew the popped kernels off it. Natives throughout the Americas also made a popcorn beer. Some made popcorn soup.

After learning about the fluffy food, colonists began enjoying the first puffed breakfast cereal a bowl of popcorn, served with cream or milk.

Popcorn and Americans True Love

Popcorn was very popular in the United States from the late 1th century through the middle of the 0th century. It was available in parks, from street vendors, and near theaters.

During World War II, when sugar was rationed, Americans changed their snacking habits they ate three times as much popcorn as they had before. Perhaps the favorite place to eat popcorn was at the movies. When television took off in the 150s, popcorn sales dropped for a while.

Today, the average American eats nearly 70 quarts of popcorn a year. But the United States isnt just a land of popcorn lovers its also the land of popcorn. Most of the world now gets its popcorn from Nebraska and Indiana.

Pop Secret

Popcorn Classification

KingdomPlantae plant

PhylumAnthophytaproduces flowers

ClassMonocotyledonaeeach seed produces a single leaf

OrderCommelinalesthe leaves are fibrous

FamilyPoaceaehas blade-shaped leaves, like grass

GenusZeaproduces fleshy, one-seeded fruits

Speciesmayscorn

A popcorn kernel is actually a seed. Like other seeds, inside it has a tiny plant embryo (a life form in its earliest phase). The embryo is surrounded by soft, starchy material that would give the embryo energy for growing into a plant. A hard, glossy shell protects the outside of the seed.

The soft, starchy material holds some water. When the kernel is heated to a high heat (400 degrees F), the water inside the kernel turns into steam. The pressure from the steam causes the kernel to explode. The soft starch inside bursts out at about 40 times its original size, turning the kernel inside out. This creates the fluffy white area of a popped kernel.

The ideal popcorn kernel contains about 14 percent moisture. If the popcorn is much drier, it will not pop. Popcorn kernels should be kept in a tightly sealed jar so that they will not dry out.

Fast Forward to the 100s

Popcorn was popular in the U.S. from the 180s until the Depression of 1. During the Depression, street vendors followed the crowds - pushing steam or gas-powered poppers through fairs, parks and expositions. During the Depression popcorn at 5 or 10 cents a bag was one of the few luxuries poor families could afford. While other businesses failed, popcorn businesses thrived. It is reported that an Oklahoma banker who went broke bought a popcorn machine and started a business in a small store near a theater. After a couple of years, his popcorn business made enough money to buy back three of the farms he had lost. During World War II, sugar was sent overseas to support U.S. troops. This meant there was not much sugar left to make candy. As a result, American ate three times as much popcorn as usual.

150s to Present

Popcorns popularity slumped during the 150s when television became popular and theater attendance dropped. When people began eating popcorn at home, the new relationship between television and popcorn led to a resurgence in popularity.

This trend has continued. Today, U.S. popcorn growers annually produce over 00 million pounds of raw popcorn. According to one source this is enough to fill a tub the size of a Mammoth Cave. About 0% of domestic production is exported. The top state producer is Nebraska with about 0% of the U.S. total.

Once processed and packaged, popcorn is offered to consumers in a variety of formats and flavors. It is sold in outlets as varied as Department Stores and QVC to movie complexes with huge snack facilities duplicating old fashioned Drive Ins. An expanding economy has created a whole new environment for the consumption of popcorn - the home theatre. This factor, growing distribution channels, new recipes and uses for popcorn and a growing awareness of the healthful and nutritious aspects of this product predict a bright and continued future for the popcorn industry.

As reported by the Popcorn Institute of Chicago, IL 16

popcorn Kernel contains a mass of moist starch surrounded by an extremely hard outer shell. The moisture level is ideally around 1.5 percent, any less and the kernels will not pop and should be discarded. When the kernels are heated to about 00c the moisture in the starch turns into steam and builds up pressure until the kernel explodes inside out, increasing in size by up to 40 times.

Once popped the corn falls into two distinct shapes, snowflake which is large and shaped like a cumulus cloud and mushroom, shaped like a large round ball.

Please note that this sample paper on POPCORN HISTORY is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on POPCORN HISTORY, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom research papers on POPCORN HISTORY will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Language and thought

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BBI15 Introduction to psycholinguistics

Assignment topic Language and thought

1. Introduction

Language and thought, these are the two distinct abilities possessed by human . These two unique abilities had enabled man to be more superior than any other living things in this world.

Cheap Custom Essays on Language and thought

What actually are language and thought? Are they closely related?

Language does not exist in a vacuum. We use it for a variety of purpose and it is therefore molded by many factors. As it is used for transmitting ideas, its structures and function must reflect the ideas. Because it must be spoken and understood easily, its structure and function must be within the limitation of our

psychological and processing capacities.

As people from different social and cultural backgrounds are using language

for communication, these forces molds Its structure and function too. But once it is acquired and used, language wields a power of its own. As it is affected and molded by the above factors, so language affects and molds people's daily lives.

Language helps us to think about something and stops us from thinking of others.

To put this in simple terms, the whole argument is like two sides of the coins. Is it reality , that means the world and the whole experience of living, that gives us the words and the sentences that make up our language, or is it the words and the sentences that are in our language that maks us reality in the way we do? It is a question that is quite difficult to answer.

1

. What is language?

According to the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary-

Ilanguage (of a country) is the speech and writing that is used by people of a particular country where as

iilanguage (of communication) is the device used by humans to communicate with each other. In other word, it is a system of sounds and words used for communicating and to encode and deliver thought and ideas.

iiiAccording to Sociolinguistics written by R.A Hudson 1, language is a body of knowledge or rules.

. What is thought?

iAccording to the Essential Activator, Longman, thought is something that you think.

IiAccording to the book ,Sociolinguistics written by R.A Hudson, 1, the term thought covers a number of different types of mental activity, and lies in the province of cognitive psychology.

4.Language and thought

It seems evident that there is a close relation between

language and thought . Everyday experience suggests that most of our thinking is facilitated by language.

Is there a clear identity between the two?

Is it possible to think without language?

Does language dictate the ways in which we are able to think?

A simple answer is certainly not possible but at least we can be clear about the main factors which may give rise to the complication.

4.1The relationships between language and thought

Many kinds of behavior have been referred to as thinking, but not all of them require us to posit a relationship with language.

The thinking which seems to involve language is the reasoned thinking which takes place as we as we work out problems, tell stories, plan strategies and others. It has been called "rational? "directed? or

"propositional?thinking. It involves elements that are both deductive and inductive.

For this kind of thinking, language seems to be very important. The formal properties of language, such as word order any sentence sequencing, constitute the medium in which our connected thoughts can be presented and organized.

Let us now turn to the question of LD (language determination).

To what extent, and in what ways, does language determine thought this question is normally answered with reference to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, according to which language determines thought to a very great extent and in many ways.

4.What the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis has to say about language and thought

The 'Sapir-Whorf?hypothesis combines two principles.

The linguistic determination (which states that language determines the way we think) and linguistic relativity (state that the distinctions encoded in one language are not found in any other language)

English speakers having one word for carrying things, in contrast with the malay language, where there are different words for carrying things-

i. junjung (carrying on the head)

ii. Bimbit/pegang(carry for example handphonein the hand)

iii. jinjing (carry for example handbag in the hand)

iv. pikul (carry on the shoulder)

v. tanggung (two person carrying one thing)

most famous quotation that whorf (140) had laid out, whorf is talking about how our thinking is affected by the grammar of our language.

In other words, the only kind of experience that influences our

thought processes is linguistic experience as implied by the phrase linguistic determinism.On the one hand, it claims that our grammar is the only things that influences our thinking---"…?the background linguistic system ……of each language is …… itself the sharper of ideas.?

Sapir and Whorf carried out a hypothesis, which is still alive but controversial over fifty years later. A research project was carried out in the 150's which involved a comparision of English with Navajo.

The general conclusion to which this research points then is that grammar does influence our thinking in ways that go beyond the use of language, but that it is only one of the things that does --- contrary to the extreme view of 'linguistic determinism?

Another more recent research project carried out by John Lucy (Lucy 1b) which supports the same view. The study was carried out over

a decade of work with a community in Mexico whose language is Yucatec Maya.

4

The purpose was to compare the cognitive effects of speaking this language with those of speaking English and specifically the work focused on a very general grammatical difference between the two languages, their treatment of number differences in nouns

In conclusions, it seems that there is good evidence that some

semantic contrasts which are expressed by grammar are also applied outside the strictly linguistic realm of language use.

Whether or not a person applies these contrasts concerned,

so it seems reasonable to assume that language is the cause and the thought-pattern is the effect. In short, language does affect thought

in ways that go beyond the rather obvious effects of specific lexical items .

5.Universals and Relativity

Let's now look at the argument that we had discussed in the introduction part of this assingment.

The two sides of the same argument whether it is the world and the whole experienmce of living , that gives us the words and sentences that make up our language OR is it the words and sentences that are in our language that makes us reality in the way that we do , are termed as linguistis universals and linguistics relativity.

If languages are molded in part by the propositions, physiological and processing capacities and social factors, then they should have certain common features . These are termed LINGUISTIC UNIVERSALS. There will no doubt be differnces from language to language due to different conditions.

5

At the apposite is LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY. If language molds people's lives, it is only logical to deduce that people who speak different languages will think differently. The garo is able to think about rice in more ways than any European simply because they have more words for rice. What Whorf claims (language influence thought, i.e. how you perceive and organize your reality ) is infact a very important statement about the relation between language and thought.

However, we just cannot consider linguistic relativity without condidering universals. If we were to describe three shirts, we can't do so without presupposing that they are made of cloth. We can talk about differences in colour, texture, sleeve length etc. Differences can only be described with respect to canstancies. The same is true for languages. As we have stated that the Garo has more words (nouns) for rice than European. But to state this presupposes that both languages have nouns. It would seem then that linguistic relativity presupposes linguistics universals.

Linguistics universals have a direct link to languages and is therefore worth further study. In a world that is getting smaller each day, language as a communication tool has taken immense importance. This is especially true for "global?language like English. It follows then that teaching and learning this language are important pursuits. Towards finding an efficient and effective way of teaching and learning languages, examining linguistics universals could shed some useful light. The differences in language definitely have obvious limits. Every human language, because it is used by humans living on earth, must

?be learned by children

?be spoken and understood by adults easily and efficiently

?contain the ideas people normally want to convey

?function as a communication system

6

From the points above, we may find that it is not difficult to list down the common features in all human languages. If we know what is common to all languages, it might be possible to describe what is inherent in human ability to speak, understand and acquire language. If these linguistic universals could be delineated, learning a foreign language may not be that difficult anymore as each of us would already have common , basic structures and processing capacities.

6.Conclusion

Whether language is influenced by thought or whether it is thought that is influenced by language, the debate is still going on. This debate has acquired greater significance in the world that we live in now due to the advances in technology in the world that has made global communication an everyday occurrence. No matter what it is, what is important is we know that learning more than one language is advantageous; consequently, second and foreign language pedagogy has received much focus. Knowing what underlines all languages would help greatly in their teaching. And perhaps , for individuals or students like us, we will be able to widen our horizons and be more successful in life..

REFERENCES

1.Aitchison, Jean. 18. The Articulate Mammal An Introduction to Psycholinguistics(Forth Edition). London Routledge

.Steinberg, Danny D. 1. An Introduction to Psycholinguistics. London

Longman.

.R.A. Hudson .1. Siciolinguistics(second edition), Cambridge University Press

4Sharifah Zainab Syed Abd. Rahman 001 The Module for BBI15 Introduction To Psycholinguistics. Universiti Putra Malaysia.

7

CONTENT PAGE

1.Introduction1

.What is language ?

.What is thought ?

4.Language and thought

4.1The relationship between language and thought

4.What the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis has to say about

language and thought

5.Universals and Relativity5

6.Conclusion7

BBI15 Introduction to psycholinguistics

Assignment topic Language and thought

1. Introduction

Language and thought, these are the two distinct abilities possessed by human . These two unique abilities had enabled man to be more superior than any other living things in this world.

What actually are language and thought? Are they closely related?

Language does not exist in a vacuum. We use it for a variety of purpose and it is therefore molded by many factors. As it is used for transmitting ideas, its structures and function must reflect the ideas. Because it must be spoken and understood easily, its structure and function must be within the limitation of our

psychological and processing capacities.

As people from different social and cultural backgrounds are using language

for communication, these forces molds Its structure and function too. But once it is acquired and used, language wields a power of its own. As it is affected and molded by the above factors, so language affects and molds people's daily lives.

Language helps us to think about something and stops us from thinking of others.

To put this in simple terms, the whole argument is like two sides of the coins. Is it reality , that means the world and the whole experience of living, that gives us the words and the sentences that make up our language, or is it the words and the sentences that are in our language that maks us reality in the way we do? It is a question that is quite difficult to answer.

1

. What is language?

According to the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary-

Ilanguage (of a country) is the speech and writing that is used by people of a particular country where as

iilanguage (of communication) is the device used by humans to communicate with each other. In other word, it is a system of sounds and words used for communicating and to encode and deliver thought and ideas.

iiiAccording to Sociolinguistics written by R.A Hudson 1, language is a body of knowledge or rules.

. What is thought?

iAccording to the Essential Activator, Longman, thought is something that you think.

IiAccording to the book ,Sociolinguistics written by R.A Hudson, 1, the term thought covers a number of different types of mental activity, and lies in the province of cognitive psychology.

4.Language and thought

It seems evident that there is a close relation between

language and thought . Everyday experience suggests that most of our thinking is facilitated by language.

Is there a clear identity between the two?

Is it possible to think without language?

Does language dictate the ways in which we are able to think?

A simple answer is certainly not possible but at least we can be clear about the main factors which may give rise to the complication.

4.1The relationships between language and thought

Many kinds of behavior have been referred to as thinking, but not all of them require us to posit a relationship with language.

The thinking which seems to involve language is the reasoned thinking which takes place as we as we work out problems, tell stories, plan strategies and others. It has been called "rational? "directed? or

"propositional?thinking. It involves elements that are both deductive and inductive.

For this kind of thinking, language seems to be very important. The formal properties of language, such as word order any sentence sequencing, constitute the medium in which our connected thoughts can be presented and organized.

Let us now turn to the question of LD (language determination).

To what extent, and in what ways, does language determine thought this question is normally answered with reference to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, according to which language determines thought to a very great extent and in many ways.

4.What the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis has to say about language and thought

The 'Sapir-Whorf?hypothesis combines two principles.

The linguistic determination (which states that language determines the way we think) and linguistic relativity (state that the distinctions encoded in one language are not found in any other language)

English speakers having one word for carrying things, in contrast with the malay language, where there are different words for carrying things-

i. junjung (carrying on the head)

ii. Bimbit/pegang(carry for example handphonein the hand)

iii. jinjing (carry for example handbag in the hand)

iv. pikul (carry on the shoulder)

v. tanggung (two person carrying one thing)

most famous quotation that whorf (140) had laid out, whorf is talking about how our thinking is affected by the grammar of our language.

In other words, the only kind of experience that influences our

thought processes is linguistic experience as implied by the phrase linguistic determinism.On the one hand, it claims that our grammar is the only things that influences our thinking---"…?the background linguistic system ……of each language is …… itself the sharper of ideas.?

Sapir and Whorf carried out a hypothesis, which is still alive but controversial over fifty years later. A research project was carried out in the 150's which involved a comparision of English with Navajo.

The general conclusion to which this research points then is that grammar does influence our thinking in ways that go beyond the use of language, but that it is only one of the things that does --- contrary to the extreme view of 'linguistic determinism?

Another more recent research project carried out by John Lucy (Lucy 1b) which supports the same view. The study was carried out over

a decade of work with a community in Mexico whose language is Yucatec Maya.

4

The purpose was to compare the cognitive effects of speaking this language with those of speaking English and specifically the work focused on a very general grammatical difference between the two languages, their treatment of number differences in nouns

In conclusions, it seems that there is good evidence that some

semantic contrasts which are expressed by grammar are also applied outside the strictly linguistic realm of language use.

Whether or not a person applies these contrasts concerned,

so it seems reasonable to assume that language is the cause and the thought-pattern is the effect. In short, language does affect thought

in ways that go beyond the rather obvious effects of specific lexical items .

5.Universals and Relativity

Let's now look at the argument that we had discussed in the introduction part of this assingment.

The two sides of the same argument whether it is the world and the whole experienmce of living , that gives us the words and sentences that make up our language OR is it the words and sentences that are in our language that makes us reality in the way that we do , are termed as linguistis universals and linguistics relativity.

If languages are molded in part by the propositions, physiological and processing capacities and social factors, then they should have certain common features . These are termed LINGUISTIC UNIVERSALS. There will no doubt be differnces from language to language due to different conditions.

5

At the apposite is LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY. If language molds people's lives, it is only logical to deduce that people who speak different languages will think differently. The garo is able to think about rice in more ways than any European simply because they have more words for rice. What Whorf claims (language influence thought, i.e. how you perceive and organize your reality ) is infact a very important statement about the relation between language and thought.

However, we just cannot consider linguistic relativity without condidering universals. If we were to describe three shirts, we can't do so without presupposing that they are made of cloth. We can talk about differences in colour, texture, sleeve length etc. Differences can only be described with respect to canstancies. The same is true for languages. As we have stated that the Garo has more words (nouns) for rice than European. But to state this presupposes that both languages have nouns. It would seem then that linguistic relativity presupposes linguistics universals.

Linguistics universals have a direct link to languages and is therefore worth further study. In a world that is getting smaller each day, language as a communication tool has taken immense importance. This is especially true for "global?language like English. It follows then that teaching and learning this language are important pursuits. Towards finding an efficient and effective way of teaching and learning languages, examining linguistics universals could shed some useful light. The differences in language definitely have obvious limits. Every human language, because it is used by humans living on earth, must

?be learned by children

?be spoken and understood by adults easily and efficiently

?contain the ideas people normally want to convey

?function as a communication system

6

From the points above, we may find that it is not difficult to list down the common features in all human languages. If we know what is common to all languages, it might be possible to describe what is inherent in human ability to speak, understand and acquire language. If these linguistic universals could be delineated, learning a foreign language may not be that difficult anymore as each of us would already have common , basic structures and processing capacities.

6.Conclusion

Whether language is influenced by thought or whether it is thought that is influenced by language, the debate is still going on. This debate has acquired greater significance in the world that we live in now due to the advances in technology in the world that has made global communication an everyday occurrence. No matter what it is, what is important is we know that learning more than one language is advantageous; consequently, second and foreign language pedagogy has received much focus. Knowing what underlines all languages would help greatly in their teaching. And perhaps , for individuals or students like us, we will be able to widen our horizons and be more successful in life..

REFERENCES

1.Aitchison, Jean. 18. The Articulate Mammal An Introduction to Psycholinguistics(Forth Edition). London Routledge

.Steinberg, Danny D. 1. An Introduction to Psycholinguistics. London

Longman.

.R.A. Hudson .1. Siciolinguistics(second edition), Cambridge University Press

4Sharifah Zainab Syed Abd. Rahman 001 The Module for BBI15 Introduction To Psycholinguistics. Universiti Putra Malaysia.

7

CONTENT PAGE

1.Introduction1

.What is language ?

.What is thought ?

4.Language and thought

4.1The relationship between language and thought

4.What the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis has to say about

language and thought

5.Universals and Relativity5

6.Conclusion7

REFERENCES7

Please note that this sample paper on Language and thought is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Language and thought, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on Language and thought will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Sports

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Many children drop out of competitive sport in their teen years, never to return to the game again. On the other hand, teenagers who take up or remain in competitive sport go on to play sport throughout their lives. The main questions that needs to be asked is why teenagers, especially girls, drop out of sport and what can be done to fix this problem. Sport is an excellent way to spend your pastime, whilst keeping fit and meeting many new people. This report will investigate the issues which stop or limit teenage girls from playing sport and how the St Margaret Mary's sports program aims to address this.

Procedure

A survey was conducted at St Margaret Mary's College of girls in grade and grade 10. Fifty-six students in year were surveyed and a further forty-nine students in year 10 were surveyed. Results were then collaborated and presented in a series of graphs and tables. (See Results)

Results

Cheap College Papers on Sports

Below are a series of tables and graphs with the information gathered from the survey conducted.

Discussion

From the research conducted it has shown that an alarming rate of girls don't want to play or don't enjoy school sport. Thirty-one percent of girls enjoy sport at St. Margaret Mary's, eighteen percent do not enjoy sport at all and fifty-three percent only enjoy sport sometimes.

There were a number of components that the participants felt that the SMMC PE program should develop. 6% of those surveyed think the program should develop physical skills, 4% want to learn the rules of the games, 4% would like to learn various tactics, 65% believe fitness should be developed, 56% just to play the game, 64% want teamwork developed and 46% believe that the competitive factor should be enhanced.

Horse riding proved to be, overall, the most popular sport whilst skipping was the least popular in the SMMC PE program.

Many reasons were identified throughout the survey of why a large number of the participants don't partake in sport. students recorded that there weren't ample facilities available for school sport and a majority of students simply want to play sport for fun, not on such a competitive level.

Please note that this sample paper on Sports is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Sports, we are here to assist you. Your cheap research papers on Sports will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Romeo And Juliet

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Four hundred years ago, William Shakespeare wrote the tragedy of Romeo and Juliet, a popular play that continues to capture the imagination and emotions of people around the world. The drama portrays the passionate, violent and often desperate lives of the youth of Verona. Even today, the tragedy resembles a blueprint of the problems that the adolescents of the twentieth century must face each day.

In this play, Shakespeare explores the pitfalls of young love, and the consequences they receive from their actions. They explained their love to be true love and they knew that they had to be together, even though their families were enemies and it was truly forbidden for the two of them to marry. The whole idea of love in Romeos and Juliets thoughts was totally misunderstood, and they demonstrated in many sections of the play that they truly did not know what true love was.

In this play, Shakespeare shows that love can cause and finish anything, even love that is not honestly discovered. The influence of parents played a major part in the tragedy of Romeo and Juliet. To start with, the general situation is rather like a family conflict. The feud between the Capulets and the Montagues had been passed down through the generations, until the youngest child had been planted with the seeds of hate.

From the beginning of the play, it is learned that the Capulets held the decisive judgement of what Juliets future would have in store. Do my essay on Romeo And Juliet CHEAP !

"She hath not seen the change of fourteen years. Let two more summers wither in their pride Ere we may think her ripe to be a bride.

This demonstrates Capulets intent of choosing Juliets husband. Romeo and Juliet kept their relationship secret from the start, in fear that their love affair would be rejected by their feuding families.

That is what led to the death of both lovers. Had they held a more open relationship, eventually, both families would have accepted it. However, considering the circumstances, the street brawl and the later death of Tybalt, Romeo and Juliet felt that their parents would not have been able to understand the love between the two youths. In todays society, youth are constantly advocating the change from total dependence on family, to their own independence.

Young people often think they know better than their parents, often believing that instead of helping them, they are only punishing them. Romeo and Juliet found that they new better then their parents, but after realizing the wrong they caused when both committing suicide. Romeo was too young to realize that he had to take responsibility for his actions and he had to accept the consequences.

This is one of the pitfalls that Shakespere portrayed in his play for young love. Romeo did not understand the outcomes of his actions. He never realized this until the damage was done. He was too involved in his love for Juliet that he didnt devote himself to any other circumstances. Young love is often an ever-changing emotion that enthrals adolescents. When a boy sees a beautiful girl, he often thinks that he is in love. That is similar to the emotion Romeo experienced

To call hers, exquisite, in question more. These happy masks that kiss fair laidies brow, Being black, puts us in mind they hide the fair. He that is strucken blind cannot forget The precious treasure of his eyesight lost. Show me a mistress that is passing fair; What doth her beauty serve but as a note Where I may read who passed the passing fair?"

Here, Romeo is saying how much he loves Rosaline, and that he cannot forget about her. However, a couple of scenes later, his love quickly changes;

O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright! It seems she hangs upon the cheek of night As a rich jewel in an Ethiops ear"

Juliet, a little more cautious than Romeo was, refused to allow him to swear his love by the moon.

O, swear not by the moon, th inconstant moon, That monthly changes in her circled orb, Lest that thy love prove likewise valuble.

Young love, can often distracting in the minds of young people. Romeo and Juliet found it unbearable to be without each other, and, to a young couple, the feelings can be mutual at times. Young love often ends up being ignorant, instead of passionate and true heart. Most of the time, the two youths are too fickle to understand or even feel what true love is, due to immaturity. Life in Verona seems to have seldom difference from todays situation.

Romeo portrayed himself to be too fickle to understand what actual love was. He thought that he was in love with Rosalin, and then fell in love with Juliet having no idea what true love really was other than the image in his thoughts.

Obviously, Romeo was not ready to commit himself and the reasons why the certain obscenities took place was because Romeo had to take the consequences for the actions he committed. Young people seem to face the same problems, make the same difficult choices and confront the same obstacles. Parental influence, young love and the revenge code still have an effect on youths, even after four hundred years, these problems are still present in the everyday lives of todays youth and for this reason, young love can cause or finish anything.

In conclusion, from the very beginning, the love of Romeo and Juliet was destined to be destroyed. It is tragic that both these people had to give their lives just so they could love each other. There were circumstances throughout the course of their lives that led up to their deaths. If their parents had not been feuding and if the Nurse had not betrayed Juliet, the outcome of this story would have been different, although fate could not be changed.

This was the most important factor in the lives of Romeo and Juliet. In my opinion the quote that accurately summarizes this play is, For never was there a story of more woe, than this of Juliet and her Romeo.

Love is the biggest thing that can happen in human life. It can make your life incredible or forgettable. In the case of Romeo and Juliet, it was both. They had something between them that would never be destroyed. Their determination to stay together through the tough times was incredible. Even when they knew that their relationship would never be normal, they never gave up.

It was a case of love at first sight when their eyes locked on each other. The story of Romeo and Juliet is more to do with love than hate. Nearly every scene of the text has love conveyed in some way in them. From the pain Romeo suffered from the rejection of Rosalyn, to the first scene where the two meet. The only scene in the whole story where love isnt conveyed is the very first scene where we see the first conflict between the Capulets and the Montagues. That just shows how much of an impact love has in Shakespeares story about two star-crossed lovers.

Romeo and Juliet had such a strong love that they would die for each other. This is what Shakespeare is trying to show us what love is all about and this is why he chose to write this story, not to show hate, but to show love. The love in the story is not only shown between Romeo and Juliet, It is also shown in the form of filial love between Romeo and Mercutio.

Romeo loved Mercutio as a friend so much that he would vow revenge on the person that brought upon his death. The friendship was everlasting and would always be treasured by Romeo, even after Mercutios death. Other love was shown between Juliet and the Nurse. Juliet grew up with the nurse by her side all the time. The nurse was more of a mother to Juliet than Lady Capulet ever was. Romeos parents cared for him much deeper than Juliets did for her. His mother was always worried or concerned about where he was and what he was doing, hoping he wouldnt get caught up in any trouble.

Shakespeare also shows paternal love to go along with the others in the text. I guess that you could say that their was a bit of love from Juliets parents towards her in that they only wanted what they thought was best for her as well as getting what they want at the same time. They imagine that Juliet would be happy living her life with Paris, although Lady Capulet was much more loving than her husband was. Romeo and Juliet is a story purely based on love.

The majority of the text makes references to love and how it effects those involved. Hate is only shown between the two families only when they are together, not when they are living their normal lives. Most of the hate comes from Tybalts mouth anyway, we hardly hear any words of hate from anyone elses mouth.

I have come to the conclusion that Romeo and Juliet is more to do with love than hate because of the style of language used and the way the characters express how they feel about one another. The story contains mostly references to love and therefore would conclude that the story was written about love. After all, love is something that everyone can relate with.

Romeo shows two different kinds of love depending on before and after he meets Juliet. Before Romeo falls in love with Juliet he lives a life of sadness. Even though he has many friends he still finds a way of putting his friends behind him and living a miserable life. He is very miserable because he has fallen in love with a woman by the name of Rosaline, but she can not love him back because she didnt even know about it. Romeo did not have the courage to tell her. His love is not true love, he is just in love with the the fact of being in love. He likes the feeling of being in love and will try to be together with anyone as long as he has the love feeling and enjoys the time being, not necesserily the girl he is being with.

He is feeling so full of sorrow that he cant take it so he locks himself in his room in darkness yet he doesnt even know if she loves him or not, because he is afraid to ask her. His love for Rosaline is great but yet she can not say the same and for that he will continue to be miserable. He has lots of support from his friends and lots of advice given to him but he doesnt take the time to think of the many opportunities he has to chose from, such as forget about Rosaline and find someone else, or tell Rosaline how he feels and see what happens.

After he meets Juliet his love for Rosaline disappears and a new and different love appears. As he see her for the first time he falls madly in love. He speaks to her and they both say they feel the same about each other. Even though they are forbidded to get married or even get together with each other, they do. Romeo shows a tremendous excitement knowing that he is loving and getting love back.

He gets in trouble because of the killing of Tybalt and the reasons he did this was revenge for Tybalt killing Mercuito, the part that I think sums up Mercuito is when he says;

"A Plague on Both Your Houses"

In a sense this really does happen because of the way the story ends. After killing Tybalt Romeo is banished from Verona. When Romeo must leave Juliet and move away neither Romeo nor Juliet can put up with the pain. They fight with all the power they have to try to stay together forever, till it comes to the point that the only solution to be together is by death. They tried everything else but they didnt succeed. He just cant bear to live a life without her. He thinks of his only choices and knows that either he forgets about her or leave town or he stays with her and is sent to a death penalty.

Even though he knows he has family and friends he chooses to die with her, to be together. So we see a big change in love here. At first he is in love with the idea of being in love and is too shy or ashamed to tell the woman how he feels, but then when he met Juliet and fell in love with her the love was mutual, now he does anything to be together with her. At first he is sad and every minute of his life is sad until he loves Juliet and he is then happy. Romeos love life to him was a lot more clear and happier even though, it meant having to die together. Romeo and Juliet is also a play, which is full of anger, passion, and death.

The secrecy of the marriage of Romeo and Juliet pointed out a form of dramatic irony. This is shown by Juliets double-edged phrases when Lady Capulet is denouncing Romeo. For example,

Ay madam, from the reach of these my hands would none but I might verge my cousins death.

Or when Juliet states in an awkward way,

Indeed I never shall be satisfied with Romeo till I behold him -dead-

Their dramatic ironies include when Romeo falls in love with Juliet, Mercutio imagines he is still in love with Rosaline.

Ah that same pale hard-hearted wench, that torments him so that he will sure run mad.

All the dramatic ironies caused a very lively presence throughout the play and have caught the eye of many readers. Last but not least, Shakespeare s writing style has also hypnotised people. Shakespeare had artistic power in his characterisation. He was often careless in the plot, such like Romeo and Juliet where he adds his imagination into the story. This really attracted people as they read the play.

Shakespeare reveals an underlying message that points to the contrasts between youth and age that are even apparent now today. The youth of society tend to question and then possibly disregard the rules that are important to their parents if they do not have good reason to believe in these rules. The rebellious actions of youth can eventually cause their own untimely destruction. We see today in the headlines many instances where teens have followed their own unguided course bringing about tragic results.

Shakespeare shows us in his play how these factors contributed to the tragedy of Romeo and Juliet. The youth of the society is quite different from the aged of society. Romeo and Juliet were brought up to despise other families because for centuries the Montagues and Capulets had been feuding. These two young people who found love at first sight could not find a problem with each other even though their parents felt that they were their enemies.

They were able to cross the barrier of hate that was put before them all their life. This was a remarkable leap because it defied the traditional code of ethics handed down from generation to generation. Romeo and Juliets parents would never even think of relating to an enemy of the family never the less falling in love with one. Juliet is caught by love that blinds her reason. She even goes as far as stating she will

…deny her name for only the name is an enemy not Romeo.

The older generation accepted traditional beliefs without question. This was their way of showing respect to their parents. On the other hand, Romeo and Juliet had the conviction and trust in themselves to formulate their ideas based on their own experience of love.

Throughout the play, Shakespeare purposely reveals an underlying theme that contrasts youth from age. The youth are the new radical generation who have revolutionized their traditional way of life. The youth overcome barriers and break traditional ideals. The youth of society can react at a much faster pace than people of older generations. Juliet, a young person, felt that the aged moved too slowly. Juliet exclaimed

The clock struck nine when I did send the nurse.

In half hour she promised to return… But old folks, many feign as they were dead… Unwieldy, slow, heavy, and pale as lead"

Juliet is an impulsive young woman who felt that she might have reacted too rashly.. Juliet weas frightened and uttered

It is too rash, too unadvisd, too sudden…Too like the lightening which doth cease to be… Ere one can say It lightens.

These examples contrast the speed of the youth and the sluggishness of the aged - the impulsive versus the more reasoned reaction. In modern day society, kids act at such an incredible pace that grownups cannot relate to. In todays high-tech world, kids question the authority of their parents because they believe they have a better way of doing it. The traditional code of ethics would have dictated that Romeo do what Lord Montague asked and not question why. Romeo abandoned everything and followed his heart.

This is applicable in todays modern day society. The issue of respect and authority of elders is questioned at every turn. The traditional way of behaving has changed dramatically. Now kids talk back to their parents and find no problem with it. In earlier times this was unheard of. Now parents no longer rule their children by a strict sense of morality or fear. This has resulted in a less strict society which tolerates more. The innocent love between Romeo and Juliet ended in a horrible tragedy due to their families intense hatred for one another. Both families understand how this extreme hate causes this tragedy. Prince Escalus says to the heads of the two households,

See what a scourge is laid upon your hate… That heaven finds means to kill your joys with love.

Society has needed an example of love in order to rectify hatred, and love is shown to have moral power. Also, in the play there is another level of interpretation. Love is triumphant over death, time, fate and especially hatred. Now the families can look back and wonder how the beautiful and innocent love between Romeo and Juliet turned into a horrible disaster because of ancient hatred. Members of the family start to question some of their own beliefs that they grew up learning. They do this to see if their code of ethics makes better sense than their parents! Four hundred years ago, William Shakespeare wrote The Tragedy of Romeo and Juliet, a popular play that continues to capture the imagination and emotions of people around the world.

The drama portrays the passionate, violent and often desperate lives of the youth of Verona. Even today, the tragedy resembles a blueprint of the problems that the adolescents of the twentieth century must face each day. In this play, Shakespeare explores the pitfalls of young love, and the consequences they receive from their actions. They explained their love to be true love and they knew that they had to be together, even though their families were enemies and it was truly forbidden for the two of them to marry.

The whole idea of love in Romeos and Juliets thoughts was totally misunderstood, and they demonstrated in many sections of the play that they truly did not know what true love was. In this play, Shakespeare shows that love can cause and finish anything, even love that is not honestly discovered. The influence of parents played a major part in the tragedy of Romeo and Juliet. To start with, the general situation is rather like a family conflict. The feud between the Capulets and the Montagues had been passed down through the generations, until the youngest child had been planted with the seeds of hate. From the beginning of the play, it is learned that the Capulets held the decisive judgement of what Juliets future would have in store.

But saying oer what I have said before. My child is yet a stranger in the world. She hath not seen the change of fourteen years. Let two more summers wither in their pride Ere we may think her ripe to be a bride.

This demonstrates Capulets intent of choosing Juliets husband. Romeo and Juliet kept their relationship secret from the start, in fear that their love affair would be rejected by their feuding families. That is what led to the death of both lovers. Had they held a more open relationship, eventually, both families would have accepted it. However, considering the circumstances, the street brawl and the later death of Tybalt, Romeo and Juliet felt that their parents would not have been able to understand the love between the two youths.

In todays society, youth are constantly advocating the change from total dependence on family, to their own independence. Young people often think they know better than their parents, often believing that instead of helping them, they are only punishing them. Romeo and juliet found that they new better then their parents, but after realizing the wrong they caused when both committing suicide. Romeo was too young to realize that he had to take responsibility for his actions and he had to accept the consequences. This is one of the pitfalls that Shakespere portrayed in his play for young love. Romeo did not understand the outcomes of his actions. He never realized this until the damage was done.

He was too involved in his love for Juliet that he didnt devote himself to any other circumstances. Young love is often an ever-changing emotion that enthrals adolescents. When a boy sees a beautiful girl, he often thinks that he is in love. That is similar to the emotion Romeo experienced

To call hers, exquisite, in question more. These happy masks that kiss fair laidies brow, Being black, puts us in mind they hide the fair. He that is strucken blind cannot forget The precious treasure of his eyesight lost. Show me a mistress that is passing fair; What doth her beauty serve but as a note Where I may read who passed the passing fair? Farewell. Thou canst not teach me to forget.

Here, Romeo is saying how much he loves Rosaline, and that he cannot forget about her. However, a couple of scenes later, his love quickly changes

O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright! It seems she hangs upon the cheek of night As a rich jewel in an Ethiops ear - Beauty too rich for use, for earth too dear. So shows a snowy dove trooping with crows As yonder lady oer her follow shows. The measure done, Ill watch her place of stand And, touching hers, make blessed my rude hand. Did my heart love till now? Forswear it, sight, For I neer saw true beauty till this night.

How quickly young love changes. Juliet, a little more cautious than Romeo was, refused to allow him to swear his love by the moon.

O, swear not by the moon, th inconstant moon, That monthly changes in her circled orb, Lest that thy love prove likewise valuble.

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Character

Characters are the people in texts, and characteractization is the authors presentation and developmentment of characters.

Authors have two main methods of presenting us with character. Direct characterization usually consists of the narrator telling the reader about the characters. In addition, direct characterization can also involve other external details, such as names or other overt commentary. For example, The Misfit in A Good Man is Hard to Find by Flannery OConnor tells the reader directly that his name is significant and then reflects upon his life experiences. Other methods of direct characterization include having the narrator or author passing direct judgement on or even analyzing a character, or having other characters in the story give the reader information about the one being characterized. Direct characterization, in other words, tells the reader about the character.

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Indirect characterization involves the author letting the character reveal himself by what he says, does, or thinks within the story. It often involves the use of external details, such as dress, mannerisms, movements, speech and speech patterns, appearances, and so forth. In other instances, indirect characterization uses more internal details such as conveying the thoughts and feelings of a character; this is common in first person stories. Such works often rely on diction, or the choice of language, and employ the voice or expressive style of the character--if not dialogue--in developing characterization. An example of voice would be Jamaica Kincaids Girl, which depends on the choice of words, cadences, and repetion in the instructions to convey a sense of the characters involved.

Characters can be flat, stock (or typed), or round. A flat character is psychologically simple and easy to understand. If you can sum up characters with a phrase or two, they are probably a flat character. Authors often make minor characters relatively flat because they primarily serve to advance the plot. Flat characters may be described in detail and be present throughout a story, but the reader tends to learn little about them beyond their function in advancing the plot. Such is the case with fairy tales, where flat characters serve the plot and didactic interests of the tale. Works, especially postmodern fiction, may also use flat characters to draw attention to the text as text, to the constructed nature of the work. In any case, flat characters tend to be subordinate to other elements of fiction and particularly plot.

Stock characters are similar to flat characters in operation, although they may not occupy as much space. It may be useful to think of stock characters as assisting both the plot and setting of a text, or contributing to the background.. The stock or typed character is a familiar stereotype often serving to aid the plot (the cub reporter, the silent cowboy, a waiter, a secretary, and so forth.). Rather than viewing stock characters negatively, the reader should recognize that stock characters will often contribute to the setting/environment of the story. Sometimes, however, stock characters deliberately comment upon their stereotypical depictions, as in the extreme case of Robert Coovers Ghost Town, so reading such a character in context is necessary. Round characters, on the other hand, have psychological depth and complexity. They are more like real people--often difficult to predict and figure out; therefore, they tend to interest us and command our attention more than flat characters.

Characters can be either static or dynamic, depending on whether or not they change over the course of the story. A static character is one who remains essentially the same from beginning to end; a dynamic character undergoes change. In general, flat characters tend to be static and round characters tend to be dynamic. Be careful of this assumption in postmodern fiction, however, where the binary between static and movement is often at the core of the text.

One type of character with a particular function is the foil character--one who is similar in some ways to a main character, but is different enough so that the contrast reveals qualities about the main character.

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Plot

Plot is composed of the key ingredients and actions in a narrative arranged in a pattern. There are many different plots, but detailed below are three categories traditional, scenic, and oblique.

Traditional Many authors choose a traditional plot, often arranged in chronological order. Some authors choose to tell the entire story in flashback (informing us of what happened before opening scene of story). When a story begins and ends at roughly the same point in time, it is a framed story. A framed story might also construct a story-within-a-story, often to draw attention to a texts constructedness; this use tends to complicate the notion of a traditional plot. Many authors also choose to use foreshadowing (hints about what will happen later in a story). Stories can also begin in medias res--seemingly in the middle of some important action, without much exposition (the background information usually placed at the beginning of the story).

While almost all plots involved conflict of some sort, the conflict need not involve a physical struggle. A conflict can be any clash of actions, ideas, desires or wills. A conflict can be external or internal, or both; a conflict may be physical, intellectual, psychological, emotional, or moral, or a combination. Most conflicts fall into one of these broad categories

person against person

person against society (culture)

person against the environment (nature, technology)

person againt fate (god, spirit)

person against himself or herself

A storys climax is the moment of the conflicts outcome. When the outcome is predictable or telegraphed, it is often referred to as anticlimactic. The resolution or denouement (which means the untangling of a knot; unravelling) is the conclusion of a story. Both terms indicate the ending of the story, although denouement also implies a surprising twist (but not one that adds new information).

Conflict always involves a storys protagonist (the central character of a work). A protagonist is not necessarily a hero, since many protagonists are not at all heroic or admirable; many protagonists are antiheroes. The protagonist in Flannery OConnors A Good Man is Hard to Find (the grandmother) or Herman Melvilles Bartleby the Scrivener is a good example of a protagonist who is not only non-heroic, but whom most readers dont even like very much. Any force (not necessarily a character) that works against the protagonist functions as an antagonist.

In evaluating a traditional plot, one can say that it has artistic unity when the author includes nothing in the story with does not advance the central intention. If the story is given a turn which is unjustified by the situation or the characters, then the author can be accused of plot manipulation. When this sort of manipulation occurs near the end of a story to give it a cheap and easy resolution (like a pat happy ending, the so-called Disney ending), this sort of contrived ending is known as a deus ex machina (god from a machine)--a term which comes from Greek dramatists constructing resolutions that relied on the interference of the gods (a famous example is Medea). Unlike its accepted convention in Greek drama, however, deus ex machina tends to be viewed as a weak and poorly constructed conclusion in most modern and contemporary works.

Scenic Plot This focuses on many realistically observed details and actions in a series of incidents, drawing out the plots movement through time. Often these movements seem to operate outside of chronological order, even juxtaposing seemingly unrelated scenes.

Oblique Plot Unlike scenic plots, oblique plots are compressed in terms of time and offer a reader a slice of life. Oblique stories may seem to lack a plot action and conflict, in the traditional sense, are minimal, and there may be little exposition and no clear resolution. These are sometimes referred to as sketches. Many postmodern and/or minimalist authors use oblique plots.

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Point of View

Three questions determine point of view (who tells us the story and how it is told)

is the one telling the story a character in the story or not?

how much is this person allowed to know?

to what extent does the narrator look inside the characters and report their feelings and thoughts?

Points of view (also known as p.o.v. or narrative perspectives) fall under three broad categories first person (a character in the story), the infrequently used second person (addresses you), and third person (not a character in the story). P.o.v. can be classified into these categories

1) Omniscient (third person omniscient) the narrator can, and usually does, report the inner feelings and thoughts of characters. The narrator is usually not an actual character in story but an invisible storyteller who can see and report anything. This narrator can include judgments into the story (editorial omniscience), or just report characters thoughts, feelings, actions and words and let the reader come to his or her own judgments (neutral omniscience).

) Limited Omniscient (third person limited) the narrator tells the story in the third person, but tells it from the viewpoint of one (sometimes more) character(s) in the story. This unnamed narrator knows everything about the main character, but does not reveal the inner thoughts of other characters--the narrator has same limitations as the protagonist. This perspective approximates real life more closely than an omniscient point-of-view.

) First Person Central the narrator is also the protagonist of the story and tells the story from her perspective.

4) First Person Observer the narrator is a character in the story but not necessarily the main character--he tells the protagonists story, having witnessed most of it.

5) Objective the narrator is not a character, but displays no omniscience, reports no thoughts or feelings. This narrator is like a journalist or movie camera (though these viewpoints, too, have angles and biases) by strictly reporting externals and not explaining anything.

6) Stream-of-Consciousness the author gives us not only the viewpoint characters relevant thoughts or feelings, but imitates the whole flow of that characters mind. Sentence structure can become unconventional and transitions illogical as the author attempts to replicate free association.

7) Second Person the narrator uses you to create an identification with the reader and the text, drawing the reader into the work and even implicating the reader in the storys actions and outcome. This technique is rather rare in contemporary stories written in English and often used for didactic purposes. (Don DeLillos Videotape serves as an example.)

Very often, the reader can draw conclusions about a storys narrator based upon what is reported. The reader may conclude that a narrator is reliable and providing an honest and straightforward account. However, often a narrator, especially a first person narrator, can seem to be providing an interpretation that is different from the authors or which is obviously biased, in which case the narrator is viewed as unreliable. Sometimes a narrator is unreliable because she is unsophisticated (or too young, innocent, naive) and unable to fully understand the events that she describes, although the reader can usually see the significance of the events.

One final thing to keep in mind about narrative perspective is the impact that time has upon how the reader perceives events; while some stories are told as if the events have just happened, sometimes a narrator indicates that the events of the story took place long ago, in which case the story is a retrospective one.

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Setting

The concept of setting seems simple it is the time and/or place of a story. Yet these terms can include its geography, architecture, era, season or culture. A storys setting can perform a number of functions. It can

provide backgrounds for the action

act as an antagonist

create atmospheres or moods

reveal character(s)

reinforce themes

Often a writer will use a setting that he knows will evoke a certain response from the reader. For example, if a story opens in a large, dark city night filled with shadows and alleys with a lone shadowy figures walks through the streets and quickly ducks into a side building, most readers will immediately associate the scene with a dark story, perhaps a crime story or action adventure. The writer can then either reinforce that response (the next setting is a den of criminals), or subvert that response (the next setting is a bedroom, where the figure turns out to be young woman visiting the bedridden, developing a melodrama or sentimental tale).

Take note of what the writer establishes about the setting and try to consider why she either provides a lot of information about the setting or why the time or place of the story is somewhat vague and indeterminate.

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Style, Tone, and Irony

When a reader discusses a writers style, one refers to the particular way a writer has of using language. In terms of Style, a reader considers the writers diction (choice of words), syntax (grammar or sentence structure), and figurative language. Most good writers try to match their writing styles to their characters and/or subject matter. Think about how different a story like Shirley Jacksons The Lesson would have been had the style involved complex words, proper speech, and perfectly grammatical sentences. What would have happened had Ernest Hemingway avoided dialogue (direct speech) in Hills Like White Elephants or used a detailed description of the setting?

Tone can be defined as the value that style or gesture gives to words. Most often, a storys tone conveys the writers or the characters attitude toward something. Tone can be said to be serious, sarcastic, lighthearted, angry, or any number of other terms. A good example of integrating tone and content is Tim OBriens The Things They Carried.

Irony is the perception of incongruity or discrepancy. It can be between words and meanings, actions and reality, or appearances and reality. Irony creates a tension between what is and what is expected, desired, appears, or hopes for. There are four types of irony

1) Verbal irony is a figure of speech in which what is expressed is the opposite of the meaning implied by the speaker, and the speaker is conscious of this tension. Sarcasm is the most common example of verbal irony, but verbal irony is often more subtle and not designed to insult in the same manner as sarcasm.

An example of verbal irony is the statement We had a light snow for Michigan after our latest blizzard, and is an example of understatment (minimizing the nature of something). Another type of verbal irony is overstatement, exaggerating the nature of something, as when people say, In my day, I walked ten miles to school, in a blizzard, barefoot! An example of the exaggerated use of verbal irony known as sarcasm would be telling someone, Youre such a beautiful human being! to someone who has just treated someone else poorly; here the tension between what is said and what is meant is intended to be explicit to the listener/reader.

) Situational irony occurs when there is a discrepancy between appearance and reality, expectation and fulfillment, or between what is and what would seem appropriate. This term refers mostly to events in the story rather than words. For example, the bartender who is killed in an automobile accident by the drunk she had served beyond the legal limit.

) Attitudinal irony occurs when one characters expectations are disrupted, believing reality is one way when it is actually another. An example of this would be the idealistic student who believes his professor really loves the students writing only to find that his professor never actually reads the paper and just assigns a random grade (no truth to that, of course!).

4) Dramatic irony is created through the contrast between what a character believes or says and what the reader knows to be true. A famous example is in Romeo and Juliet. When Romeo kills himself because his love Juliet is dead, the readers/audience knows she is really alive, having faked her death to be with Romeo. In this case, his actions move the play not only to irony but tragedy. Another example would be the famous (although totally false) story of Marie Antoinette who, in response to her citizens demands for food, was to have said, Let them eat cake. This story demonstrates dramatic and not verbal irony because Marie Antoinette was not aware that people starved, so she was not being sarcastic in her comment but instead revealing her own innocence/ignorance.

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Theme

Theme is a central idea to a work, and is usually presented indirectly through the elements or strategies of fiction. A thematic statement is something the reader creates after the story, like a thesis statement in an essay. Themes are interpretive in nature; although an author may introduce a thematic element into a work, the response of the reader also contributes. Any given work will have multiple meanings. For example, Margaret Atwoods Happy Endings is a treatise about how one should savor the development of ones life, and move beyond its structure to focus on its meaning, or a treatise on how to write, or both--all depending upon ones reading of the work.

In working with theme, be aware of the following. Be careful to distinguish subjects from themes, a necessary skill much like the need to distinguish between topics and theses. A theme tells how the subject is developed within the work (in Atwood, not all of life, but savoring the development...). A theme is applicable outside the written work, not only with the world created by the narrative; it is a generalization. A work may contain several themes, or none that may be determined. The authors claim is not definitive and neither is the readers there may be many potential themes in a work. Finally, some themes may be descriptive rather than prescriptive, exposing problems rather than offering solutions.

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Symbolism

A symbol is a person, object or event that suggests more than its literal meaning. In other words, it isb something that has two levels of meaning on the literal level it is what it is (the actual necklace in The Necklace by Guy de Maupassant); on the non-literal level it would represent a more hidden meaning (the wifes vanity, the sacrifices the couple made, deceit, the life they could have been). Determining the meaning of a symbol (or if something is a symbol at all) is often a matter of close reading and interpretation--the reader must pick up on the contextual clues supplied by the writer.

Sometimes, of course, there is not much ambiguity involved, since we are surrounded by conventional symbols and natural symbols whose meanings are already basically predetermined. A conventional symbol is one that is very widely recognized by a society as a symbol; for example, a countrys flag is a symbol of that country itself as well as the characteristics associated with that symbol. (Our flag not only represents the United States but, to some, also represents life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.) A natural symbol, as its name implies, is a generally recognized symbol that is connected to nature itself; for example, the season of fall and the sunset are generally associated with dying,while spring and sunrise often are associated with birth or new life. However, many difficulties in reading symbols exists with literary symbols, where the author determines what the symbol will stand for.

When a story revolves around or focuses on a single symbolic object, as in the case of The Necklace, the object operates as a central symbol. Unlike allegory, where the reader encounters universal symbols with traditional meanings, it is not possible to reduce the necklace to a single meaning. In some stories, symbolism comes from symbolic gesture (a repeated gesture or act) as in D.H. Lawrences The Rocking Horse Winner. In other works, the symbol is a place or environent, as in Frank Baums Oz books (symbolic environments). If there does not seem to be a literal level for a storys symbol--if it seems to be one extended set of symbols, a universal meaning, or represents general truths or abstract concepts about the human condition--the story is termed an allegory (found in Kafka s or Marquezs works).

Why do authors use symbols? Usually because they are subtle, non-intrusive ways of getting meaning across--most readers hate being whacked over the head with obvious messages,and symbols are ways of telling a reader something without having to come right out and state it directly. Symbols work in conveying meaning because our unconscious minds are used to dealing with them--when we dream, we dream in symbols, according to modern psychology. Symbols also pervade our spiritual lives, so most of us grow accustomed to seeing them from an early age.

Information on this pages is considered common knowledge within literary studies. Individuals seeking more information may find it helpful to consult one of the following books (a short list among many) A Contemporary Reader for Creative Writers, Writing Essays about Literature, The Story and Its Writer

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